Seasonal Variation in the Biological Effects of PM2.5 from Greater Cairo
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. PM2.5 Physico-Chemical Characterization
2.2. Biological Responses
2.2.1. Cell Viability
2.2.2. Release of Inflammatory Mediators
2.2.3. Cell Cycle Alterations
2.2.4. Oxidative Stress and PAH Metabolizing Enzymes’ Activations
2.3. Correlations between Chemical Parameters and Biological Effects
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Site Description and PM2.5 Collection
4.2. PM2.5 Chemical Characterization
4.2.1. Water Soluble Inorganic Ionic Species (WSIs)
4.2.2. Elemental Concentration
4.2.3. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
4.3. Filter Extraction and Particle Characterization
4.4. PM2.5 In Vitro Toxicity
4.4.1. Cells Culture and Exposure Conditions
4.4.2. Cell Viability Assay
4.4.3. Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Release
4.4.4. Flow Cytometry Analysis of the Cell Cycle
4.4.5. ROS Production
4.4.6. Western Blot Analysis
4.5. Statistical Analyses
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
WHO | World Health Organization |
PM | particulate matter |
COPD | chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
PAHs | polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons |
VOCs | volatile organic compounds |
NA | Naphthalene |
ACY | Acenaphthylene |
ACE | Acenaphthene |
FLU | Fluorene |
PHE | Phenanthrene |
ANT | Anthracene |
FLT | Fluoranthene |
PYR | Pyrene |
BaA | Benzo(a)anthracene |
CRY | Chrysene |
BbF | Benzo(b)Flouranthene |
BkF | Benzo(k)Flouranthene |
BaP | Benzo (a) pyrene |
IND | Indeno(1,2,3-cd) pyrene |
DBA | Dibenzo(a,h) anthracene |
BGP | Benzo(ghi)perylene |
WSIs | water-soluble ions |
Ms | metals/metalloids |
MDLs | method detection limits |
ICP MS | Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry |
ICP-QQQ | Triple Quadrupole ICP-MS |
DCM | dichloromethane |
GC | gas chromatography |
LAL | Limulus Amebocyte Lysate |
PI | Propidium Iodide |
ROS | reactive oxygen species |
H2O2 | Hydrogen peroxide |
TBS | Tris-Buffered Saline |
TBS-T | TBS with 0.1% Tween20 |
BSA | bovine serum albumin |
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Water-Soluble Inorganic Ions Title | Spring | Summer | Autumn | Winter |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cl− | 22.66 ± 4.57 | 33.79 ± 1.54 | 42.67 ± 25.99 | 33.71 ± 10.94 |
NO3− | 50.81 ± 11.24 | 65.42 ± 15.14 | 55.58 ± 3.64 | 38.35 ± 14.02 |
SO42− | 106.74 ± 21.52 | 204.33 ± 24.44 | 107.02 ± 8.10 | 86.13 ± 20.29 |
Na+ | 23.94 ± 10.52 | 19.83 ± 1.88 | 30.73 ± 19.39 | 32.93 ± 11.01 |
NH4+ | 28.63 ± 1.97 | 53.33 ± 2.01 | 37.86 ± 0.79 | 25.60 ± 10.33 |
K+ | 20.67 ± 1.16 | 18.41 ± 6.09 | 19.83 ± 2.45 | 13.02 ± 6.44 |
Mg2+ | 19.16 ± 5.48 | 18.55 ± 2.41 | 21.40 ± 9.22 | 13.59 ± 8.49 |
Ca2+ | 33.96 ± 3.18 | 35.75 ± 5.28 | 37.99 ± 19.59 | 32.47 ± 10.86 |
Ʃ WSIs | 306.58 § ± 59.65 | 449.42 ± 58.79 | 353.08 *** ± 89.17 | 275.79 § ‡ ± 92.37 |
Metals | Spring | Summer | Autumn | Winter |
---|---|---|---|---|
Al | 32.41 ± 8.26 | 23.11 ± 5.08 | 20.93 ± 0.15 | 27.98 ± 7.86 |
Fe | 14.4 ± 7.34 | 8.58 ± 2.32 | 9.96 ± 0.13 | 14.54 ± 4.5 |
Mn | 0.50 ± 0.08 | 0.44 ± 0.10 | 0.39 ± 0.02 | 0.52 ± 0.09 |
V | 0.31 ± 0.11 | 0.23 ± 0.07 | 0.20 ± 0.01 | 0.18 ± 0.04 |
Zn | 0.99 ± 0.61 | 0.68 ± 0.15 | 0.69 ± 0.01 | 0.86 ± 0.17 |
Ni | 0.31 ± 0.10 | 0.19 ± 0.03 | 0.20 ± 0.02 | 0.17 ± 0.02 |
Co | 0.011 ± 0.00 | 0.010 ± 0.00 | 0.053 ± 0.01 | 0.033 ± 0.03 |
Cd | 0.09 ± 0.08 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.18 ± 0.01 | 0.11 ± 0.09 |
Cu | 1.27 ± 0.06 | 0.99 ± 0.30 | 0.75 ± 0.01 | 0.88 ± 0.14 |
Pb | 2.93 ± 0.61 | 2.08 ± 1.13 | 2.60 ± 0.23 | 2.5 ± 0.78 |
As | 0.16 ± 0.03 | 0.18 ± 0.05 | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 0.2 ± 0.06 |
Hg | 0.008 ± 0.00 | 0.010 ± 0.00 | 0.008 ± 0.00 | 0.010 ± 0.00 |
Ʃ Ms | 53.39 ± 15.68 | 40.51 *** ± 6.24 | 36.12 § ± 0.41 | 47.96 ‡ ± 12.40 |
PAHs | Spring | Summer | Autumn | Winter |
---|---|---|---|---|
NA | 0.17 ± 0.09 | 0.13 ± 0.03 | 0.28 ± 0.04 | 0.33 ± 0.01 |
ACY | 0.25 ± 0.02 | 0.23 ± 0.06 | 0.26 ± 0.05 | 0.31 ± 0.01 |
ACE | 0.32 ± 0.02 | 0.42 ± 0.10 | 0.38 ± 0.06 | 0.53 ± 0.01 |
FLU | 0.29 ± 0.02 | 0.38 ± 0.09 | 0.29 ± 0.04 | 0.47 ± 0.01 |
PHE | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 0.60 ± 0.14 | 0.52 ± 0.11 | 0.61 ± 0.01 |
ANT | 1.84 ± 0.10 | 2.31 ± 0.38 | 0.52 ± 0.10 | 0.63 ± 0.02 |
FLT | 1.69 ± 0.08 | 1.93 ± 0.38 | 2.41 ± 0.42 | 2.55 ± 0.04 |
PYR | 1.85 ± 0.10 | 2.17 ± 0.48 | 1.99 ± 0.37 | 2.05 ± 0.03 |
BaA | 2.10 ± 0.13 | 2.29 ± 0.50 | 2.38 ± 0.44 | 2.49 ± 0.02 |
CRY | 3.42 ± 0.15 | 4.21 ± 0.89 | 3.87 ± 0.59 | 4.10 ± 0.04 |
BbF | 4.27 ± 0.25 | 4.95 ± 1.01 | 4.41 ± 0.62 | 5.06 ± 0.09 |
BkF | 3.71 ± 0.17 | 5.13 ± 1.04 | 3.74 ± 0.57 | 4.48 ± 0.04 |
BaP | 3.21 ± 0.19 | 4.12 ± 0.71 | 2.78 ± 0.36 | 3.31 ± 0.06 |
IND | 2.33 ± 0.13 | 2.79 ± 0.54 | 3.49 ± 0.56 | 3.50 ± 0.05 |
DBA | 3.25 ± 0.23 | 3.84 ± 0.77 | 3.94 ± 0.77 | 4.12 ± 0.06 |
BGP | 3.64 ± 0.20 | 4.35 ± 0.78 | 4.78 ± 0.70 | 4.62 ± 0.06 |
ƩPAHs | 32.82 ± 1.90 | 39.85 § ± 7.20 | 36.05 ‡ ± 5.78 | 39.14 § ± 0.55 |
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Marchetti, S.; Hassan, S.K.; Shetaya, W.H.; El-Mekawy, A.; Mohamed, E.F.; Mohammed, A.M.F.; El-Abssawy, A.A.; Bengalli, R.; Colombo, A.; Gualtieri, M.; et al. Seasonal Variation in the Biological Effects of PM2.5 from Greater Cairo. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 4970. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20204970
Marchetti S, Hassan SK, Shetaya WH, El-Mekawy A, Mohamed EF, Mohammed AMF, El-Abssawy AA, Bengalli R, Colombo A, Gualtieri M, et al. Seasonal Variation in the Biological Effects of PM2.5 from Greater Cairo. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2019; 20(20):4970. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20204970
Chicago/Turabian StyleMarchetti, Sara, Salwa K. Hassan, Waleed H. Shetaya, Asmaa El-Mekawy, Elham F. Mohamed, Atef M. F. Mohammed, Ahmed A. El-Abssawy, Rossella Bengalli, Anita Colombo, Maurizio Gualtieri, and et al. 2019. "Seasonal Variation in the Biological Effects of PM2.5 from Greater Cairo" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 20: 4970. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20204970