Effects of Ration Levels on Growth and Reproduction from Larvae to First-Time Spawning in the Female Gambusia affinis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Growth and Feed Utilization
2.2. Energy Allocation
2.3. Reproduction Parameters
Developmental Stages | Ration Levels | Body Length (mm) | n | Body Weight (Wet Weight, mg) | CF | WGw (mg·day−1) | SGRw (%·day−1) | RLe (%) | FCEe (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–16 days of age | H | 15.86 ± 1.02 c | 40 | 72.53 ± 14.61 c | 1.80 ± 0.20 b | 4.01 ± 0.86 c | 16.31 ± 1.36 c | 34.50 ± 8.68 c | 31.68 ± 6.51 a |
M | 15.34 ± 0.85 b | 40 | 61.42 ± 7.29 b | 1.71 ± 0.18 a | 3.35 ± 0.43 b | 15.43 ± 0.70 b | 22.23 ± 2.34 b | 46.87 ± 5.50 b | |
L | 13.72 ± 0.65 a | 40 | 43.77 ± 5.35 a | 1.69 ± 0.12 a | 2.31 ± 0.31 a | 13.42 ± 0.87 a | 13.97 ± 2.06 a | 72.05 ± 8.99 c | |
17 days of age—First-time sexual maturity | H | 21.91 ± 1.08 c | 60 | 210.94 ± 27.51 b | 2.00 ± 0.18 b | 7.29 ± 1.45 c | 5.57 ± 0.71 b | 119.44 ± 5.14 c | 13.96 ± 3.62 a |
M | 22.51 ± 0.75 b | 60 | 203.85 ± 25.29 b | 1.78 ± 0.15 a | 6.19 ± 1.10 b | 5.18 ± 0.53 a | 98.50 ± 4.03 b | 26.23 ± 4.19 b | |
L | 21.09 ± 0.85 a | 60 | 164.49 ± 15.68 a | 1.75 ± 0.12 a | 4.64 ± 0.60 a | 5.07 ± 0.36 a | 57.79 ± 1.29 a | 29.59 ± 3.89 c | |
First-time sexual maturity—First-time spawning | H | 23.57 ± 1.51 b | 100 | 272.71 ± 55.73 c | 2.06 ± 0.25 b | 5.33 ± 2.74 c | 1.15 ± 1.09 b | 42.45 ± 1.06 c | 4.95 ± 5.82 b |
M | 23.14 ± 0.78 b | 100 | 236.27 ± 29.62 b | 1.91 ± 0.21 a | 3.39 ± 1.40 b | 0.66 ± 0.60 a | 22.55 ± 0.32 b | −0.23 ± 6.23 a | |
L | 21.48 ± 0.62 a | 100 | 182.47 ± 23.24 a | 1.84 ± 0.23 a | 0.71 ± 0.92 a | 0.38 ± 0.51 a | 16.11 ± 0.16 a | −1.71 ± 6.12 a |
Developmental Stages | Ration Levels | n | Food Consumption | Energy Allocation (kJ·fish−1) | As a Percentage of Consumption (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total (kJ·fish−1) | Average (kJ·g−1·day−1) | Somatic Growth | Gonadal Growth | Somatic Growth | Gonadal Growth | |||
17 days of age—First-time sexual maturity | H | 60 | 6.81 ± 0.15 c | 2.53 ± 0.05 c | 0.63 ± 0.01 b | 0.40 ± 0.01 b | 9.18 ± 0.35 a | 5.80 ± 0.16 a |
M | 60 | 4.39 ± 0.06 b | 1.44 ± 0.02 b | 0.68 ± 0.01 b | 0.36 ± 0.00 b | 15.56 ± 0.08 b | 8.26 ± 0.02 b | |
L | 60 | 2.55 ± 0.00 a | 0.95 ± 0.00 a | 0.53 ± 0.00 a | 0.22 ± 0.00 a | 20.97 ± 0.33 c | 8.63 ± 0.13 b | |
First-time sexual maturity—First-time spawning | H | 100 | 6.71 ± 0.10 c | 1.34 ± 0.00 c | 0.23 ± 0.00 c | 0.15 ± 0.00 b | 3.48 ± 0.42 c | 2.24 ± 0.24 a |
M | 100 | 3.70 ± 0.04 b | 0.80 ± 0.01 b | 0.05 ± 0.00 b | 0.06 ± 0.00 a | 1.31 ± 0.36 b | 1.53 ± 0.76 a | |
L | 100 | 2.23 ± 0.00 a | 0.51 ± 0.00 a | −0.02 ± 0.00 a | 0.06 ± 0.00 a | −0.97 ± 0.40 a | 2.74 ± 0.27 a |
Sex | Ration Levels 1 | n | Body Length (mm) | Body Weight (mg) | WGw (mg·day−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | H | 10 | 11.37 ± 0.36 a | 21.13 ± 2.46 a | 1.27 ± 0.17 a |
M | 10 | 10.98 ± 0.77 a | 20.08 ± 3.73 a | 1.22 ± 0.12 a | |
L | 10 | 11.23 ± 0.70 a | 21.20 ± 3.55 a | 1.38 ± 0.18 a | |
Female | H | 10 | 11.52 ± 0.40 a | 20.78 ± 2.17 a | 1.30 ± 0.19 a |
M | 10 | 11.27 ± 0.43 a | 20.52 ± 1.58 a | 1.19 ± 0.29 a | |
L | 10 | 11.43 ± 0.46 a | 22.38 ± 2.29 a | 1.29 ± 0.27 a |
3. Discussion
4. Experimental Section
4.1. Experimental Fish
4.2. Experimental Design and Management
4.3. Measurement and Calculation
4.4. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Sun, L.; Chen, H. Effects of ration and temperature on growth, fecal production, nitrogenous excretion and energy budget of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum). Aquaculture 2009, 292, 197–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, X.M.; Xie, S.Q.; Cui, Y.B. Effect of ration level on growth and energy budget of the Gibel Crap, Crapassiusauratus gibelio. Oceanol. Limnol. Sin. 2000, 31, 471–479. [Google Scholar]
- Cui, Y.B. Bioenergetics of fishes: Theory and methods. Acta Hydrobiol. Sin. 1989, 13, 369–383. [Google Scholar]
- Hester, F.J. Effects of food supply on fecundity in the female guppy, Lebistes reticulatus (Peters). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 1964, 21, 757–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, M.; Wootton, R.J. Coping with resource variation: Effect of constant and variable intervals between feeding on reproductive performance at first spawning of female three-spined sticklebacks. J. Fish Biol. 1999, 55, 211–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bromley, P.J.; Ravier, C.; Withames, P.R. The influence of feeding regime on sexual maturation, fecundity and atresia in first-time spawning turbot. J. Fish Biol. 2000, 56, 264–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siddiqui, A.Q.; Al-Harbi, A.H.; Al-Hafedh, Y.S. Effects of food supply on size at first maturity, fecundity and growth of hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (L.) × Oreochromis aureus (Steindachner), in outdoor concrete tanics in Saudi Arabia. Aquac. Res. 1997, 28, 341–349. [Google Scholar]
- Pyke, G.H. Plague minnow or mosquito fish? A review of the biology and impacts of introduced Gambusia species. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2008, 39, 171–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pan, J.H.; Zhang, J.Y. Studies on the control of the mosquito by app lying Gambusia affinis over a large breeding area. J. South China Norm. Univ. (Nat. Sci.). 1981, 1, 54–60. [Google Scholar]
- Krumholz, L.A. Reproduction in the western mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard), and its use in mosquito control. Ecol. Monogr. 1948, 18, 1–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoy, J.B.; Kauffman, E.E.; Oberg, A. Large-scale field test of Gambusia affinis and chlorpyrifos for mosquito control. Mosq. News 1972, 32, 161–171. [Google Scholar]
- Krame, V.L.; Garcia, R.; Colwell, A.E. An evaluation of the mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) and the inland silverside (Menidia beryllina) as mosquito control agents in California wild rice fields. J. Am. Mosq. Control 1987, 3, 626–632. [Google Scholar]
- Blaustein, L. Larvivorous fishes fail to control mosquitoes in experimental rice plots. Hydrobiologia 1992, 232, 219–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lowe, S.; Browne, M.; Boudjelas, S.; de Poorter, M. 100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species: A Selection from the Global Invasive Species Database; Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG): Auckland, New Zealand, 2000; p. 12. [Google Scholar]
- Meffe, G.K. Predation and species replacement in American southwestern fishes: A case study. Southwest Nat. 1985, 30, 173–187. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hurlbert, S.H.; Zedler, J.; Fairbanks, D. Ecosystem alteration by mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) predation. Science 1972, 175, 639–641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kuntz, A. Notes on the Habits, Morphology of the Reproductive Organs, and Embryology of the Viviparous Fish (Gambusia affinis); US Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1914. [Google Scholar]
- Pyke, G.H. A review of the biology of Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 2005, 15, 339–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katre, S. Effect of feeding level on the rate and efficiency of food conversion in the cyprinodont fish Gambusia affinis. Ceylon J. Sci. 1977, 12, 177–184. [Google Scholar]
- Reddy, S.R.; Shakuntala, K. Comparative studies on the food intake, growth and food conversion of two larvivorous fishes. Anim. Sci. 1979, 88, 425–432. [Google Scholar]
- Wurtsbaugh, W.A.; Cech, J.J. Growth and activity of juvenile mosquitofish: Temperature and ration effects. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 1983, 112, 653–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vondracek, B.; Wurtsbaugh, W.A.; Cech, J.J. Growth and reproduction of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in relation to temperature and ration level: Consequences for life history. Environ. Biol. Fishes 1988, 21, 45–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, X.T.; Li, D.P.; Zhuang, P. Effects of rearing density on juvenile Acipenser schrenckii digestibility, feeding rate and growth. Chin. J. Appl. Ecol. 2006, 17, 1517–1520. [Google Scholar]
- Huang, N.Y.; Xia, L.J.; Yao, Z.L. The influence of stocking density and water temperature on growth in juvenile Esox lucius raised in greenhouse. J. Fish. China 2006, 30, 76–80. [Google Scholar]
- Arunachalam, S.; Ravichandra; Reddy, S. Interactions of feeding rates on growth, food conversion and body composition of the freshwater catfish Mystus vittatus (Bloch). Hydrobiology 1981, 78, 25–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cui, Y.B.; Wootton, R.J. Components of the energy budget in the European minnow, Phoxinus phoxinus (L.) in relation to ration, body weight and temperature. Acta Hydrobiol. Sin. 1990, 14, 193–204. [Google Scholar]
- Zhu, X.M.; Xie, S.Q.; Cui, Y.B. Effect of ration level on growth and energy budget of male and female rare minnow Gobiocypris rarus. Oceanol. Limnol. Sin. 2001, 32, 240–247. [Google Scholar]
- Foss, A.; Imsland, A.K.; Vikingstad, E.; Stefansson, S.O.; Norberg, B.; Pedersen, S.; Sandvik, T.; Roth, B. Compensatory growth in Atlantic halibut: Effect of starvation and subsequent feeding on growth, maturation, feed utilization and flesh quality. Aquaculture 2009, 290, 304–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bavcevic, L.; Klanjscek, T.; Karamarko, V.; Anicic, I.; Legovic, T. Compensatory growth in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) compensates weight, but not length. Aquaculture 2010, 301, 57–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutil, J.D.; Lambert, Y. Natural mortality from poor condition in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 2000, 57, 826–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yin, M.C. Fish Ecology; China Agriculture Press: Beijing, China, 1995; pp. 110–116. [Google Scholar]
- Xian, W.W.; Zhu, X.H. Effect of ration size on growth and energy budget of the mullet Liza haematocheila (T. et S.). Oceanol. Limnol. Sin. 2001, 32, 615–619. [Google Scholar]
- Hirshfield, M.F. An experimental analysis of reproductive effort and cost in the Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes. Ecology 1980, 61, 282–292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeng, X.L.; Lin, X.T.; Xu, Z.N.; Xia, X.J.; Sun, J. Effects of ration on growth and reproductive investment from larva to sexual maturity in the female cyprinid minnow, Tanichthys albonubes. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 2012, 97, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reznick, D. Grandfather Effects: The genetics of inter population differences in offspring size in the mosquito fish. Evolution 1981, 35, 941–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reznick, D.; Schultz, E.; Morey, S. On the virtue of being the first born: The influence of date of birth on fitness in the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. Oikos 2006, 114, 135–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yan, Y.Z.; Chen, Y.F.; Tao, J. Ecological invasion of Gambusia affinis: A review. Chin. J. Ecol. 2009, 28, 950–958. [Google Scholar]
- Pan, J.H.; Su, B.Z.; Zheng, W.B. Biological characteristics of Gambusia affinis and the prospects for its use for mosquito control. J. South China Norm. Univ. (Nat. Sci.). 1980, 1, 117–138. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, G.Z.; Lin, X.T.; Chen, P. Recent progress in the invasion ecology of mosquito fish (Gambusia spp.). Acta Ecol. Sin. 2008, 28, 4476–4485. [Google Scholar]
- Gao, S.T.; Liu, Z.J.; Deng, Q. Rare, growth and production of mosquito fish. Freshw. Fishery 1995, 25, 17–19. [Google Scholar]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Zhu, Z.; Zeng, X.; Lin, X.; Xu, Z.; Sun, J. Effects of Ration Levels on Growth and Reproduction from Larvae to First-Time Spawning in the Female Gambusia affinis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2015, 16, 5604-5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16035604
Zhu Z, Zeng X, Lin X, Xu Z, Sun J. Effects of Ration Levels on Growth and Reproduction from Larvae to First-Time Spawning in the Female Gambusia affinis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015; 16(3):5604-5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16035604
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhu, Zhiming, Xiangling Zeng, Xiaotao Lin, Zhongneng Xu, and Jun Sun. 2015. "Effects of Ration Levels on Growth and Reproduction from Larvae to First-Time Spawning in the Female Gambusia affinis" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 16, no. 3: 5604-5617. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16035604