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Review

Traditional Uses, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Prospects

by
Ana Belem Rubio-García
1,
Cecilia Guadalupe de Loza-García
1,
Jorge Manuel Silva-Jara
2,
Napoleón González-Silva
1,
Luis Antonio Ramirez-Contreras
1,
Zuamí Villagran
1,
Omar Graciano-Machuca
3,
Jessica del Pilar Ramírez-Anaya
4,
Fernando Martínez-Esquivias
1 and
Luis Miguel Anaya-Esparza
1,*
1
Centro Universitario de Los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlan de Morelos 47620, Mexico
2
Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44430, Mexico
3
Centro Universitario de Los Valles, Universidad de Guadalajara, Carretera a Guadalajara Km. 45.5, Ameca 46708, Mexico
4
Departamento de Ciencias Computacionales e Innovación Tecnológica, Centro Universitario del Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara, Av. Enrique Arreola Silva 883, Ciudad Guzmán 49000, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2026, 31(9), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31091477
Submission received: 18 March 2026 / Revised: 26 April 2026 / Accepted: 27 April 2026 / Published: 29 April 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Products and Microbiology in Human Health, 2nd Edition)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

The genus Serjania (family Sapindaceae) comprises more than 240 species, primarily distributed in Brazil and Mexico, and it exhibits considerable ethnobotanical and therapeutic potential. Ethnobotanical evidence documents the widespread use of decoctions prepared from the leaves, stems, and roots of Serjania species for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, renal pain, inflammatory conditions, and infections. Among the most extensively studied species are S. marginata, S. erecta, S. lethalis, S. caracasana, S. goniocarpa, S. schiedeana, S. yucatenensis, S. triquetra, and S. racemose. Phytochemical research has identified a diverse array of bioactive secondary metabolites, including saponins, flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and terpenoids. Significant experimental evidence supports the broad spectrum of biological activities of these Serjania species, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, gastroprotective, antihypertensive, analgesic, antivenom, cytotoxic, antimutagenic, anti-ulcer, photoprotective, antiparasitic, and vasorelaxant effects, as demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo models. Although preliminary toxicity assessments of extracts from some Serjania species in murine models, Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia), and Artemia salina suggest a favorable safety profile, significant research gaps remain. Additionally, several Serjania species have shown potential as natural pesticides and bioherbicides, highlighting their relevance in agricultural applications. Future studies should prioritize the isolation and structural characterization of individual bioactive compounds, as well as the elucidation of their molecular mechanisms of action, moving beyond crude extract-based screening approaches. Overall, this review summarizes current knowledge on traditional uses, phytochemical composition, biological activities, and biotechnological applications of Serjania species.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Traditional/folk medicine, which relies on nature-based remedies, frequently employs plant-based preparations for health maintenance and disease management [1,2]. Since antiquity, plant-derived products have played a central role in diverse traditional medicinal practices for the treatment of non-transmissible chronic diseases (e.g., cancer, diabetes, hypertension, and musculoskeletal disorders), infectious conditions, wound healing, and burn management [3]. Common preparation methods include maceration, decoction, infusion, and poultices from different plant parts such as roots, bark, seeds, peels, and leaves [1]. Within this framework, several species of the genus Serjania (family Sapindaceae) have gained increasing scientific attention over the past two decades due to their reported therapeutic properties and bioactive potential [4,5,6,7].
Although approximately 240 Serjania species have been documented worldwide, most research has primarily focused on botanical identification. In contrast, ethnobotanical investigations report that decoction prepared from leaves, stems, and roots, particularly of S. marginata, S. erecta, and S. lethalis and in less proportions S. caracasana, S. goniocarpa, S. schiedeana, S. yucatenensis, S. triquetra, and S. racemosa have traditionally been used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, bacterial infections, cancer [8,9,10,11,12], inflammatory conditions, dermatological diseases, diarrhea, fever, hypertension [4,12,13,14,15,16,17], renal pain and nephrolithiasis [17,18,19], leg ulcers [20,21,22], vomiting, headache [21], hepatitis, and urinary tract infections [6,7,23].
Phytochemical studies have demonstrated that Serjania species contain a diverse range of secondary metabolites, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, terpenes, and fatty acids [10,12,13,16,24,25]. These compounds have been associated with multiple biological activities (often in vitro, and in some in vivo studies using murine models), such as antimicrobial [5], anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive [11], antioxidant [13], cytotoxic [26], antimutagenic [8,10], gastroprotective [27], antidiarrhea [10], photoprotective [5], antiparasitic [28], analgesic [4], neuroprotective [14], antihypertensive [15], antivenom [29], and antileishmanial effects [30]. Moreover, several studies suggest promising biotechnological applications, including weed control [19], insecticidal and pesticide activities [31,32], and the isolation of associated microorganisms with biotechnological relevance [33].
Despite this growing evidence, only a limited number of Serjania species (approximately eight to ten) have been investigated regarding their ethnobotanical relevance, phytochemical composition, biological activities, or biotechnological uses. Therefore, the present narrative review aims to summarize current knowledge on the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical profiles, biological activities, and emerging biotechnological applications of Serjania species, highlighting research gaps and future perspectives for compound-driven development.

2. Literature Search, Selection, and Data Analysis

Literature Search

This narrative review was conducted using a structured, comprehensive literature search to identify studies on the phytochemistry, biological activities, and traditional uses of Serjania species. The literature search was performed in three major electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, covering publications from database inception through 17 March 2026. To complement this search and minimize publication bias, an additional manual search was conducted using Google Scholar. The search equation used across databases was as follows: (“Serjania triquetra” OR “Serjania species” OR “Serjania” OR “soapberry vine”) AND (pharmacological OR “biological activity” OR “phytochemical” OR “ethnopharmacology” OR “traditional medicine” OR “bioactive compounds” OR “medicinal plant” OR “antioxidant” OR “anti-inflammatory” OR “antimicrobial” OR “anticancer” OR “hepatoprotective” OR “neuroprotective”). No restrictions were applied regarding publication year, language, or geographic region. Only articles published in peer-reviewed journals were considered. Peer-reviewed journal articles and relevant conference proceedings were considered for inclusion in this review.
The literature search conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science yielded 423 records potentially relevant to the scope of this narrative review. After removing duplicate entries and excluding studies that did not meet the predefined thematic focus, a total of 57 publications were retained for further analysis. Therefore, documents included ethnobotanical aspects of Serjania species, qualitative and quantitative phytochemical characterization, and examined toxicological profiles. In addition, a substantial proportion of the included studies evaluated the biological activities of Serjania-derived extract and fractions using in vitro and in vivo experimental approaches.
The gathered evidence was subsequently examined using a qualitative approach, with particular emphasis on identifying patterns linking phytochemical composition to the observed biological and biotechnological effects.

3. Traditional Uses of Serjania Species

The genus Serjania belongs to the family Sapindaceae, which comprises trees, shrubs, lianas, and climbing vines predominantly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide [34]. Native to the Neotropical region, this genus encompasses approximately 240 species, with Brazil representing the primary center of diversity (117 species), followed by Mexico (59 species, 33 of which are endemic) [35]. Serjania species are typically characterized as climbing shrubs or woody lianas with brown bark, triquetrous stems, and rhomboidal leaves arranged in clusters [6,36,37]. Figure 1 shows some Serjania species.
Decoctions of leaves, stems, and roots of different Serjania species have been traditionally used for various therapeutic purposes across various regions (Figure 2).
Table 1 summarizes the alleged therapeutic uses of the most extensively studied Serjania species and places in which they are mainly used. These decoctions are mainly used for treating gastric problems, pain, infections, hypertension, inflammation, and urinary system disorders, among others.

4. Phytochemicals Reported in Serjania Species

Phytochemicals comprise a structurally diverse group of naturally occurring compounds, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes, tannins, alkaloids, and saponins, among others. These compounds are secondary metabolites synthesized via the phenylpropanoid, mevalonate, and shikimate biosynthetic pathways [41]. Many phytochemicals exhibit significant biological activities and have historically served as the basis for traditional therapeutic applications and modern drug discovery efforts [42]. In this context, the documented ethnobotanical uses of Serjania species provide a strong rationale for systematic phytochemical investigations [6,43].
Despite the taxonomic diversity of the genus, phytochemical characterization has been conducted in only a limited number of species, including S. marginata, S. erecta, S. lethalis, S salzmanniana, S. caracasana, S. goniocarpa, S. schiedeana, S. yucatanensis, and S. triquetra (Table 2). Among them, saponins, terpenes, and flavonoids represent the predominant classes of compounds. Leaves are the most extensively investigated plant organ, likely reflecting their widespread ethnobotanical use; however, stems and roots have also been investigated (Table 1). Phytochemical identification has primarily been performed using organic solvent extracts (e.g., methanolic, ethanolic, and chloroform) and aqueous preparations. Additionally, certain Serjania species have been reported to contain fatty acids and essential oils, further expanding their chemical diversity.

4.1. Phenolic Compounds

Phenolic compounds represent one of the most abundant classes of secondary metabolites in higher plants, surpassed only by carbohydrates. Structurally, they range from simple phenols to highly polymerized compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins [52]. These metabolites have been reported in several Serjania species (Table 2).
Cinnamic acid derivatives, tannins, flavonoids, and flavonoid glycosides have been identified in the leaves and roots of S. marginata [5,10,11,25]. Chromatographic analyses of leaves allowed for the characterization of individual phenolic constituents, including quercetin derivatives [11,44], protocatechuic acid, catechin derivatives, apigenin derivatives, cassiaoccidentalin A–C, luteolin derivatives [25], proanthocyanidin derivatives [44], and glycosylated flavone derivatives [25]. For its part, NMR analysis has identified the presence of flavonoids in S. racemosa leaves [12].
In S. erecta, qualitative analyses of leaves have revealed flavonoids, tannins [29], glycosylated flavonoids [13], and catechins [16]. The individual phenolic profile includes quercetin, catechin, kaempferol, and apigenin derivatives [4,14,17]. Additionally, flavonoids, tannins, and catechins have been reported in the roots and stems of S. erecta [15,16].
In S. lethalis, flavonoids and benzoic acid derivatives have been detected in leaves [30,47], whereas quercetin has been identified in the aerial parts of S. caracasana [39]. In stems of S. schiedeana, total flavonoids, tannins, and epicatechin derivatives have been reported [36,40].
Phenolic compounds are widely recognized for their antioxidant properties and for mitigating oxidative-stress-related chronic degenerative diseases [52]. However, to date, there are no reports on phenolic compounds in S. goniocarpa, S. yucatanensis, or S. triquetra. Figure 3 shows the chemical structures of the most representative phenolic compounds reported in Serjania species. These compounds have been identified in other plant species.

4.2. Terpenoids

Terpenoids constitute one of the largest and most structurally diverse classes of secondary metabolites. They are biosynthesized from five-carbon isoprene (C5H8) units and include both volatile and non-volatile compounds [54]. Based on the number of isoprene units, they are classified as monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, sesterterpenoids, triterpenoids, tetraterpenoids, and polyterpenoids [55]. Due to their lipophilic nature, terpenoids exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and antimalarial effects [55,56]. In this context, various terpenoids have been reported in some Serjania species (Table 2).
In S. erecta, terpenoids have been qualitatively identified in leaves, shrubs, and stems [16,29,45]. In S. lethalis leaves, chromatographic analyses have been identified several individual terpenoids, including α-cubene, 4-epi-cubedol, (-)-spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, C14H22O2 and (-)-loliolide, 6,10,14-Trymethyl-2-pentadecacone, phytol, (E)-phytol, phytol acetate, 4,8,12,16-tretamethylheptadecan-4-olide, β-amyrone, β-amyrin, lup-20(29)-en-3-one, lup-20(29)-en-3-ol, glutinone, β-amyrin acetate, α-thujene, δ-terpinene, thymol, carvacrol, and β-caryophyllene [20,30].
In aerial parts of S. caracasana, spathulenol, 6,10,14-Trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, β-sitosterol, β-amyrin, friedelin, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol glucoside have been reported [39]. In S. goniocarpa, goniocarpic acid and phytol have been identified in leaves [21], whereas lup-20(29)-en-3-one and β-caryophyllene oxide have been reported in S. yucatanensis leaves [22].
Additionally, phytol, phytone, 4,8,12,16-tetramethylpentadecan-4-olide, and various fatty acid methyl esters have been identified in stems of S. schiedeana [51]. Additionally, stigmasterol, oleanolic acid, morolic acid, hederagenin, and 11α-hydroperoxy-hederagenin have been isolated from leaves of S. triquetra [7]. Figure 4 shows the chemical structures of the most representative terpenoids reported in various Serjania species.

4.3. Saponins

Saponins are amphiphilic terpenoid secondary metabolites produced by plants, often in response to biotic stress. They consist of a hydrophobic aglycone (sapogenin) linked to one or more hydrophilic sugar moieties. This structural configuration confers surface-active properties and characteristic foaming behavior of saponins. Based on their aglycone structures, saponins are classified as steroidal saponins or terpenoid saponins [57]. These compounds are widely distributed in medicinal plants and are associated with diverse pharmacological activities, including Serjania species (Table 2) [58]. The qualitative detection of saponins has been reported in the leaves of S. marginata [10,24], S. erecta [13,16,29,43], S. lethalis [47], and S. racemosa [12], as well as in the roots and stems of S. erecta [15,16]. These metabolites have been linked to gastroprotective and anti-ulcer effects [10]. In stems of S. salszmaniana, several triterpenoid saponins have been isolated, including pulsatilla saponin D, salzmannianoside A, and salzmannianoside B. These compounds demonstrated antifungal and molluscicidal activities [50]. Figure 5 shows the chemical structures of the most representative saponins reported in Serjania species. It is important to note that, while most saponins identified in Serjania species are found in other plant species [59,60], salzmannianoside A and B have been identified exclusively in S. salzmaniana, while 11α-hydroperoxy-hederagenin has been found in S. triiquetra [7] and goniocarpic acid in S. goniocarpa [21], and, recently, Serjania racemosa [12].

4.4. Other Compounds

Additional bioactive constituents have been reported in several Serjania species (Table 2 and Figure 6). Quinic acid has been identified in the leaves of S. marginata [44]. In S. erecta, cardiac glycosides (roots), steroids (stem and leaves), and fatty acids (seeds), including capric, palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, α-linoleic, arachidonic, and eicosadienoic acids have been reported [15]. In leaves from S. lethalis, hexadecanal, methyl hexadecanoate, hexadecanoic acid, ethyl hexadecanoate, methyl octadecenoate, octadecanoic acid, ethyl octadecenoate, and γ-tocopherol have been identified [30]. Seeds of S. lethalis contain palmitic, oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, and eicosanoid acids [48]. Similarly, seeds of S. salzmaniana contain palmitic, arachidic, behenic, oleic, eicosanoid, and erucic acids [49]. In S. caracasana seeds, palmitic, stearic, arachidic, oleic, eicosanoid, erucic, and linoleic acids have been identified, while allantoin has been reported in leaves [39,49]. In S. schiedeana leaves, alkaloids, methyl palmitate, and methyl arachidate have been detected [36,40]. Finally, in stems of S. triquetra, ethyl palmitate, stigmasta-3,5-dien-7-one, methyl pentacosanoate, ethyl docosanoate, ethyl oleate, stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol, and erucic acid have been reported [6].

5. Biological Activities and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species

In recent years, extracts, fractions, and isolated compounds derived from Serjania species have been increasingly investigated for their biological activities and potential biotechnological applications. Although numerous Serjania species have been taxonomically documented worldwide, this section focuses exclusively on studies that experimentally evaluated bioactivity or biotechnological utility, including 14 reports for S. erecta, 12 reports for S. marginata, and 9 reports for S. lethalis, as the most extensively investigated species, followed by S. schiedeana (4 reports), S. triquetra (3 reports), S. salzmaniana (2 reports), S. yucatanensis (2 reports), S. caracasana (2 reports), S. goniocarpa (1 report), S. laruotteana (1 report), and S. racemosa (1 report).

5.1. Serjania marginata

Table 3 summarizes the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antimutagenic, gastroprotective, insecticidal, and antiparasitic activities reported for extracts derived from leaves and steam of S. marginata.
Extracts of S. marginata exhibit strain-dependent antimicrobial activity [61,62], as listed in Table 3. Aqueous leaf extracts showed inhibitory effects against Burkholderia cepacia, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus in a concentration-dependent response with MIC values ranging from 62.5 to 125 µg/mL; these effects are attributed to the presence of phenols and flavonoids [5]. Hydroalcoholic extracts demonstrated antimicrobial activity against E. coli, S. aureus, Salmonella setubal, Helicobacter pylori, and Candida albicans with MIC values ranging from 75 to 250 µg/mL [10]. The ethanolic extract showed activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MIC: 62.4 µg/mL) but limited or no activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae, S. epidermidis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC ≥ 1000 µg/mL) [62]. Additionally, no activity was observed against various Bacillus species (B. toyonensis, B. thuringiensis, B. cereus, and B. proteolyticus) at concentrations ranging from 1 to 1000 µg/mL [61]. The antimicrobial effects are likely attributed to the synergistic action of phytoconstituents. Polyphenols may interact with membrane proteins or form hydrogen bonds with essential enzymes. Flavonoids can disrupt membrane integrity and interfere with DNA synthesis, and alkaloids may bind microbial DNA, inhibiting transcriptional processes [63,64]. However, some studies did not perform any qualitative or quantitative determinations of bioactive compounds [10,61,62].
The anti-inflammatory effects of S. marginata leaf extract have been evaluated using a carrageenan-induced paw edema model in rats (Table 3). Hydroalcoholic extracts (300 mg/kg) reduced edema by up to 58% in a dose-dependent manner [62], while ethanolic extracts (300 mg/kg) achieved approximately 35% inhibition four hours post-administration [11]. The proposed mechanism involves suppression of inflammatory mediators through modulation of the arachidonic acid cascade and NF-κB signaling pathway, possibly mediated by flavonoids (notably rutin), proanthocyanidins, and saponins [11,62], identified via Flow Injection Analysis–Electrospray Ionization–Ion Trap–Mass Spectrometry (FIA-ESI-IT-MS) [11]. The anti-inflammatory effects may also be linked to antioxidant and antihyperalgesic properties, which are associated with the presence of phenols, flavonoids, and tannins [5,11].
The aqueous leaf extract demonstrated significant antinociceptive properties in a formalin-induced nociception murine model (Table 3). A dose of 300 mg/kg reduced nociceptive response by approximately 67%. These effects were attributed to rutin-mediated central modulation involving opioid pathways [11].
Ethanol leaf extracts showed cytotoxic activity against gastric adenocarcinoma cells (100 µg/mL) and non-tumor gastric epithelium cells (300 µg/mL), inducing cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase [26]. Similar effects were reported in additional gastric cancer models [8,9]. In these studies, no mutagenic effects were detected in normal cells [8,26] or in Salmonella Typhimurium assays with hydroalcoholic extracts [10]. The antimutagenic properties may be linked to the modulation of hepatic xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. Additionally, aqueous leaf extracts (224 mg/kg/day) exhibited hepatoprotective effects in Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) [27], further supporting the biological relevance of these extracts (Table 3). Most of these studies did not perform any qualitative or quantitative phytochemical characterization [8,10,26], except for the study conducted by Carmo-Ota et al., who identified quinic acid, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, and proanthocyanidin trimer—A-type, via FIA-ESI-IT-MS [27]. Meanwhile, the extract used by Serpeloni et al. [26] was previously characterized [9]; in total, 15 compounds were identified, including saponins, flavonoids, and proanthocyanidins (Table 2).
Aqueous, ethanolic, and hydroalcoholic leaf extracts exhibited gastroprotective effects in gastric injury models [10,26,27], as listed in Table 3. Hydroalcoholic extracts reduced gastric lesions by 60–90% at 500 mg/kg in murine models [10], associated with decreased myeloperoxidase activity, reduced malondialdehyde levels, and increased mucus production in gastric tissue. Similarly, aqueous extracts (224 mg/kg/day) improved intestinal digestion and reduced gastric damage in Nile tilapia [27]. However, hydroalcoholic extracts (250 mg/kg) did not significantly reduce the severity of diarrhea in a castor oil-induced model [10]. The most beneficial effects were attributed to the phytochemical profile of S. marginata extracts; however, most studies did not perform phytochemical characterization, except for Carmo-Ota et al., who identified several flavonoid compounds [27].
Additionally, leaf and stem extracts demonstrated concentration-dependent photoprotective effects (200–1000 µg/mL) [5]. Both ethanolic and aqueous leaf extracts demonstrated insecticidal activity against Plutella xylostella, inhibiting oviposition and increasing larval mortality [32,63]. Moreover, aqueous extract exhibited antiparasitic activity against Tetrastichus howardi [28]. Potential bioactivity was attributed to the presence of phytochemicals in S. marginata extracts; however, in these studies, the authors did not perform any phytochemical characterization of these extracts [28,32,63], except for Rocha-Falcao et al., who quantified total phenolics and flavonoids by colorimetric chemical reactions [5].
Concerning the toxicity of S. marginata extracts, acute oral toxicity studies showed no observable toxicity at 5000 mg/kg in murine models [10]. Subacute administration (2000 mg/kg for 14 days) did not produce overt toxicity; however, renal histological alterations and increased abnormal sperm production were reported [44]. Additionally, aqueous extracts showed no toxicity toward Artemia salina at concentrations between 50 and 1000 µg/mL [5].
Serjania marginata exhibits diverse biological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, cytotoxic, and gastroprotective effects, without toxic effects in some models. However, limited phytochemical characterization restricts mechanistic understanding, highlighting the need for compound-level validation.

5.2. Serjania erecta

Table 4 summarizes the antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, analgesic, antihypertensive, anti-ulcer, antivenom, insecticidal, and pesticidal activities reported for extracts derived from the leaves, roots, and stems of S. erecta.
Extracts of S. erecta exhibit concentration- and strain-dependent antimicrobial activity (Table 4). Hydroalcoholic leaf extracts showed inhibitory effects against Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Mycoplasma arginine in concentrations ranging from 625 to 2500 µg/mL [65]. Ethanolic extracts from leaves and roots inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella setubal, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Candida albicans; these were strain- and concentration-dependent effects (5–15 µg/mL). However, limited activity was observed against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (128 and 256 µg/mL) [17]. The antimicrobial effects were attributed mainly to flavonoids, which are known to disrupt microbial membrane integrity and interfere with nucleic acid synthesis [17]. Additionally, ethanolic leaf extracts demonstrated inhibitory effects against Bacillus toyonensis, B. thuringiensis, B. cereus, and B. proteolyticus at concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 µg/mL [58]. Conversely, aqueous leaf extracts did not exhibit antiparasitic activity against Tetrastichus howardi [28]. Although the antimicrobial effects were attributed to phytochemicals, most of these studies did not perform phytochemical characterization [28,58,65].
Guimarães et al. reported that the isolated flavonoids (quercetin, vitexin, and isovitexin) from methanolic leaf extracts exerted neuroprotective effects in PC12 cells subjected to Aβ25–35 peptide-induced toxicity. Vitexin exhibited the strongest protective effects (25–200 µg/mL), significantly reducing lactate dehydrogenase release and nitric oxide production (Table 4). These findings suggest that vitexin may attenuate neuronal death associated with β-amyloid–induced oxidative stress, supporting its potential relevance in neurodegenerative disorders [14].
The anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic leaf extracts was evaluated in a complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA)-induced paw edema model in rats, where oral administration (100 mg/kg) reduced inflammation by up to 85%; these effects were attributed to the phytochemical profile of S. erecta extracts, which were able to decrease the expression of inflammatory proteins via NF-κβ inhibition [4]. Topical hydroalcoholic extracts (0.003–4 mg/ear) demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of ear edema in murine models [16]. The anti-inflammatory effects were associated with reduced polymorphonuclear leukocyte migration and inhibition of mediators of the arachidonic acid pathway, likely mediated by flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and triterpenoids [13,17,45]. The ethanolic extract also exhibited analgesic activity, which may contribute synergistically to its anti-inflammatory effects [4]. However, no significant anti-inflammatory activity was observed in a rat pulpitis model when an ethanolic leaf extract was evaluated [66], suggesting model-dependent variability.
Maschieto et al. evaluated the effects of a root decoction (5% w/v, 10 mL/day) in spontaneously hypertensive rats over 32 days. Treatment improved endothelial function and vascular reactivity. The proposed mechanism involves enhanced nitric oxide bioavailability and reduced production of vasoconstrictor factors, potentially mediated by flavonoids, tannins, catechins, and glycosides. Notably, no significant changes in arterial pressure or heart rate were observed [15]. In this study, the phytochemical was qualitatively identified via foam and colorimetric reaction tests.
Methanolic leaf extracts (125–500 mg/kg) significantly reduced ethanol-induced gastric lesions in murine models, with maximal efficacy at 500 mg/kg. The gastroprotective effect appears to involve sensory neurons, nitric oxide pathways, and sulfhydryl group-mediated cytoprotection, reinforcing mucosal defense mechanisms [45]. It must be noted that no phytochemical characterization was performed in this study.
Crude methanolic extracts and fractions from leaves mitigated the toxic effects of Bothrops jararacussu venom and its isolated mycotoxins (BthTZ-I and II). The extracts inhibited phospholipase A2 activity, myotoxicity, fibrinogenolysis, hemorrhagic activity, and venom-induced edema. These effects are likely mediated by flavonoids and tannins that chelate metal ions and form complexes with venom proteins, thereby inhibiting metalloproteases, serine proteases, and phospholipases A2 [29].
Additionally, aqueous leaf extracts (5–10% w/v) exhibited insecticidal activity against Plutella xylostella, increasing egg, larval, and pupal mortality. Methanolic extract (0.0078–20 mg/L) demonstrated concentration-dependent pesticidal effects against Chrysodeixis includens, extending larval and pupal development [67]. Although these effects were associated with flavonoid and tannin compounds, the authors did not perform any qualitative or quantitative characterizations.
Concerning the toxicity of S. erecta aqueous leaf extracts (1250 mg/kg) showed no acute toxicity in a murine model [13]. Similar methanolic and chloroform extracts (5000 mg/kg) did not induce acute oral toxicity in murine models [45]. Root decoction administered for 32 days did not produce macroscopic hepatic alterations in rats [15]. However, aqueous leaf extracts (50 µg/mL) induced morphofunctional and histological alterations in the gills and liver of Piaractus mesopotamicus, indicating potential ecotoxicological considerations.
According to these data, S. erecta exhibits notable antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties, primarily attributed to its flavonoid content. Although its gastroprotective and anti-venom effects are promising, the variability in reported efficacy and the absence of systematic phytochemical characterization in the existing literature highlight the need for standardized research.

5.3. Serjania lethalis

Extracts and fractions derived from the leaves, roots, and stems of S. lethalis have been investigated for their antileishmanial, trypanocidal, larvicidal, antioxidant, and phytotoxic activities, highlighting both pharmacological and agrobiotechnological potential. Alves-Passos et al. reported that the hexane fraction obtained from S. lethalis leaves exhibited significant leishmanicidal activity against Leishmania amazonensis (IC50: 10.29 µg/mL). This fraction was obtained after dispersing the macerated extract (concentrated in a rotatory evaporator at 45 °C) in a methanol: water solution (1:4 v/v) and subsequent fractionation with hexane. Mechanistically, this fraction induced alterations in parasite cell cycle progression, with a threefold increase in cells in the sub-G0/G1 phase, suggesting apoptosis-like events. Additionally, disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential was observed, indicating mitochondrial dysfunction as a possible mechanism of action [30]. According to the authors, these effects are attributed to the presence of various phytochemicals in hexane fractions, including benzoic acid, α-cubenene, caryophyllene oxide, (E)-phytol, and β-amyrin, among others (Table 2). The root bark extract also demonstrated activity against Leishmania donovani promastigotes (IC50: 5.2 µg/mL). However, no trypanocidal activity was observed against Trypanosoma cruzi, suggesting selective antiparasitic efficacy; although these effects were potentially associated with phytochemicals, the authors did not perform any qualitative or quantitative identification of them [18].
Rodrigues et al. evaluated ethanolic extracts from stem and root bark (plant material previously air-dried, macerated in ethanol at 400 g/L, and concentrated via rotary evaporation under reduced pressure at 40 °C) against Aedes aegypti larvae. The root bark extract (resuspended in 1% of dimethyl sulfoxide solution) showed greater larvicidal activity (LC50: 285.76 µg/mL) compared to the stem extract (LC50: 404 µg/mL). The authors attributed this activity primarily to saponins, which are known to disrupt membrane integrity in insect larvae; however, they did not assess any qualitative or quantitative identification of saponins [68]. Conversely, ethanolic leaf extract (25–150 mg/mL) exhibited limited acaricidal activity against adult female Dermacentor nitens, with approximately 30% efficacy [69], indicating modest activity against this equine ectoparasite, which was associated with the presence of flavonoids detected by HPLC-DAD. The extract was obtained by macerating dried leaves (seven days), concentrated by air-forced circulation at 38 °C for 48 h, and resuspended in water prior to evaluation.
Several studies have investigated the phytotoxic potential of S. lethalis extracts as an alternative for weed control. Grisi et al. demonstrated that ethanolic crude extract (2.5–10 mg/mL) from the leaves and stems inhibited diaspore germination and seedling growth of wild poinsettia (Euphorbia heterophylla) and barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli) in a concentration-dependent manner. Leaf extracts exhibited stronger phytotoxic effects than stem extracts. The inhibition of root elongation in E. heterophylla seedlings was attributed to reduced metaxylem cell elongation. Notably, the phytotoxic effects were comparable to or, in some cases, greater than those of commercial herbicides (240 g/L at 1 and 2 L/ha) [70]. This extract was obtained by macerating dried leaves in ethanol (100 g/500 mL for 72 h) and concentrated in a rotatory evaporator under reduced pressure. Then, the extract was resuspended in buffer solution and DMSO. Similarly, crude ethanolic leaf extracts (obtained via maceration at 100 g/L and concentrated in a rotatory evaporator under reduced pressure) and derived fractions (resuspended in 5% DMSO solution at 0.8 mg/mL) have been reported to inhibit metaxylem elongation in Sesamum indicum roots [38]. It must be noted that, in these studies, the authors did not undertake any qualitative or quantitative identification of bioactive molecules [38,70].
Concentrated aqueous leaf extracts (2.5–10%) reduced the germination and seedling growth of Panucum maximum in a concentration-dependent manner [71]. Additionally, aqueous extracts from leaves and stems inhibited germination and early growth of Sesamum indicum, Raphanus sativus, and Triticum aestivum [19]. Saponin-rich fractions (0.2–0.8 mg/mL) obtained from leaves, roots, and stems demonstrated inhibitory effects on coleoptile elongation, with root and leaf fractions exhibiting the strongest activity [72]. Collectively, these findings suggest that S. lethalis extracts represent a promising alternative for developing plant-derived bioherbicides and sustainable weed management strategies. In these studies, extracts were obtained via the maceration (100 g of dried leaves in 1 L of water at 4 °C for 24 h) and then concentrated under vacuum in a rotary evaporator [19,71,72]. Nonetheless, a saponin-rich fraction was obtained by fractionating the aqueous leaf extract with methanol, which was dried and resuspended with water [72]. Although the effects, direct or indirect, were associated with the presence of phytochemicals, it must be noted that, in these studies, the authors did not assess any qualitative or quantitative identification of phytochemicals [19,71,72].
Cavalcante et al. reported that seed oil obtained via hydrodistillation from S. lethalis exhibited antioxidant activity, as evidenced by free radical scavenging assays against DPPH (EC50: 17.6 µg/mL) and ABTS radical cation (EC50: 22.5 µg/mL) [20]. These results support the contribution of lipid-soluble phytoconstituents (α-thujene, δ-terpinene, methyl ether thymol, thymol, carvacrol, and β-caryophyllene) to the species’ antioxidant profile.
Other Serjania species are predominantly investigated for their potential applications and biological activities. In this context, studies on S. lethalis extracts and fractions are focused on evaluating antiparasitic, larvicidal, phytotoxic, and antioxidant activities, positioning it as a promising source of agrobiotechnological products. However, the limited phytochemical characterization across studies highlights a critical gap that must be addressed to fully elucidate its mechanisms of action and enable its rational application.

5.4. Serjania salszmaniana

Ekabo and Farnsworth isolated two saponins from the methanolic stem extract of S. salzmanniana and evaluated their antifungal and molluscicidal activities. The isolated compounds (identified via nuclear magnetic resonance) exhibited significant antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans (MIC: 8 µg/mL) and Candida albicans (MIC: 16 µg/mL), while showing no activity against Aspergillus fumigatus (MIC > 250 µg/mL). In addition, the identified saponins (salzmannianoside A and B, pulsatiila saponin D, and 3-O-[[β-D-Glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-[r-α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-α-L-arabinopyrnoyl] oleanolic acid) displayed molluscicidal activity against Biomphalaria alexandrina at 100 ppm, inducing 70–100% mortality after 48 h of exposure [50].
Additionally, the fatty acid profile of S. salzmanniana seed oil has been reported to be suitable for biodiesel production, highlighting its potential as a renewable bioenergy source [49].
According to these data, S. salzmanniana exhibits notable antifungal and molluscicidal activities, which can be attributed to saponins, and it has potential as a renewable bioenergy source due to its seed oil profile. However, the scarce number of studies available underscores the need for further research to validate and expand its biotechnological applications.

5.5. Serjania yucatanensis

Chagas disease, caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, remains a major public health concern in Latin America and is increasingly a concern in non-endemic regions due to migration. Although antiparasitic drugs such as benznidazole and nifurtimox are available, their efficacy is limited during the chronic phase and may be associated with adverse effects. The ethanolic leaf extract of S. yucatanensis was obtained via maceration (20 g of dried leaves in 400 mL of ethanol for 72 h) and concentrated under reduced pressure. The extract was resuspended in DMSO prior to analysis. This extract has demonstrated in vitro trypanocidal activity against epimastigote and trypomastigote forms of two T. cruzi strains (Y and Ninoa), reducing parasite numbers in a concentration-dependent manner (50–100 µg/mL). In a murine model, oral administration of the extract (100 mg/kg) achieved a 75% reduction in parasitemia without evident toxicity, surpassing the efficacy of allopurinol, the positive control. In vitro assays conducted on infected Vero cells showed that the extract interfered with parasite egress and reduced the number of trypomastigotes, suggesting disruption of critical steps in the parasite life cycle. However, further studies are required to assess efficacy during the chronic phase of the infection, where current therapies are less effective [73]. Subsequently, the same research group compared the activity of the crude ethanolic extract (IC50: 38.2 µg/mL), the hexane fraction (IC50: 78 µg/mL), and a fraction enriched in lup-20(29)-en-3-one and β-caryophyllene oxide (IC50: 80.3 µg/mL). The crude extract demonstrated superior trypanocidal activity, suggesting possible synergistic interactions among phytoconstituents. Importantly, no cytotoxic effects were observed in Vero cells at 100 µg/mL [22]. The crude ethanolic extract was obtained by maceration (428 g of dried leaves in 6 L of ethanol for 72 h) and concentrated under reduced pressure, prior to fractionation with hexane and ethyl acetate, which were then purified via vacuum liquid chromatography.
Additionally, the fatty acid profile of S. caracasana seed oil has been reported to be suitable for biodiesel production, highlighting its potential as a renewable bioenergy source [49].
In summary, S. yucatanensis exhibits promising trypanocidal activity both in vitro and in vivo, likely driven by synergistic interactions among its phytoconstituents, with no evident cytotoxicity. However, the limited number of studies and lack of evaluation in the chronic phase of infection highlight the need for further investigation to confirm its therapeutic potential.

5.6. Serjania caracasana

In traditional medicinal practice, decoctions prepared from the leaves of S. caracasana are commonly used to treat gastric disorders [74]. In this context, both gastroprotective and antispasmodic activities have been experimentally investigated [39,74]. The ethanolic leaf extract (obtained by maceration of dried aerial parts and concentrated by evaporation) demonstrated gastroprotective effects in a murine model of ethanol-induced gastric ulcer, showing a dose-dependent response (50, 150, and 500 mg/kg) comparable to that of ranitidine. Additionally, the extract exhibited in vitro antispasmodic activity in rat ileal preparations pre-contracted with KCl, suggesting calcium-channel-mediated smooth muscle relaxation [74]. In this study, the dried extract was dissolved in 3% cremophor and diluted in MiliQ water (10 mg/mL) for in vitro experiments, whereas it was dissolved in Twen-20 (0.32 mg/mL) and diluted with distilled water for in vivo studies. Similarly, Silva et al. reported that the hexane (IC50: 68.4 µg/mL), dichloromethane (IC50: 161.34 µg/mL), and butanol (IC50: 219.8 µg/mL) fractions obtained from aerial parts of S. caracasana exerted antispasmodic effects in rat ileum assays. The butanol fraction exhibited low hemolytic activity (≤2%), indicating a favorable preliminary profile. Furthermore, the crude ethanolic extract was non-toxic in murine models following oral administration at 2000 mg/kg. The observed biological activities have been attributed to phytoconstituents such as β-amyrin, allantoin, quercitrin, and friedelin, which were identified via NMR and GC-MS spectroscopy [39]. For fractionation and compound isolation, first, a maceration of air-dried aerial parts (1916 g of dried material in 96% ethanol at room temperature) was performed, and the resulting solution was concentrated under reduced pressure at 40 °C. Then, the ethanolic extract (200 g) was resuspended in a 70:30 (v/v) methanol–water solution and subsequently fractionated with butanol, hexane, and dichloromethane after drying.
Additionally, the fatty acid profile of S. caracasana seed oil (highlighting eicosenoic acid) has been reported to be suitable for biodiesel production and could serve as a bioenergetic source [49].
In summary, these findings highlight S. caracasana as a promising source of gastroprotective and antispasmodic agents, consistent with its ethnobotanical use, and they also indicate biotechnological potential for bioenergy applications through its seed oil. Nevertheless, comprehensive studies focusing on phytochemical characterization, mechanisms of action, and pharmacokinetics are still required to fully validate its therapeutic use.

5.7. Serjania goniocarpa

Quintal-Novelo et al. isolated goniocarpic acid from the leaves of S. goniocarpa from hexane fractions (obtained from previous maceration of 3 kg of dried leaves in 15 L of methanol for 72 h at room temperature and concentrated under reduced pressure) and evaluated its cytotoxic and antiproliferative effects against several human cancer cell lines. The compound exhibited activity against HeLa (IC50: 2.0 and 16.1 µg/mL), Hep-2 (IC50: 5.3 and 8.7 µg/mL), MCF-7 (IC50: 2.5 and 7.8 µg/mL), KB (IC50: 1.4 and 3.4 µg/mL), PC3 (IC50: 11.3 and 45.5 µg/mL), and Hek-293 (IC50: 9.3 and 15.3 µg/mL), with responses varying according to the cell line. Although these IC50 values were higher than those reported for docetaxel (IC50: 0.01–0.2 and 0.02–0.05 µg/mL, respectively), the results indicate moderate cytotoxic potency. The authors proposed that goniocarpic acid may serve as a scaffold for structural optimization rather than as a direct chemotherapeutic candidate [21].
Although goniocarpic acid, isolated from S. goniocarpa, exhibits moderate cytotoxic and antiproliferative activities, the current evidence is limited to a single study, underscoring the need for further research to validate and expand its therapeutic potential.

5.8. Serjania laruotteana

Silva-Ribeiro et al. studied the endophytic fungal community associated with S. laruotteana. A total of 261 fungal isolates were obtained, of which 58 strains were taxonomically identified. The most prevalent genera included Colletotrichum and Diaporthe, while additional isolates belonged to Xylaria, Phyllosticta, Muyocopron, Fusarium, Nemania, Plectosphaerella, Corynespora, Bipolaris, and Curvularia. Endophytic fungi are recognized as important sources of diverse bioactive metabolites. Therefore, the microbial community associated with S. laruotteana may represent an indirect but valuable reservoir of compounds with pharmaceutical and biotechnological applications [33]. However, the evidence is currently limited to a single study, emphasizing the need for further research to explore and validate this microbial reservoir.

5.9. Serjania schiedeana

Extracts of S. schiedeana have been evaluated for anti-inflammatory and insecticidal activities, supporting both pharmacological and agrobiotechnological applications [36,37,40,51].
Salinas-Sánchez et al. assessed the anti-inflammatory activity of ethyl acetate extracts and an ethyl acetate fraction derived from S. schiedeana using a TPA-induced ear edema murine model and a kaolin/carrageenan (K/C)-induced arthritis murine model. In the TPA-induced model, the crude extract produced 90% inhibition of auricular edema at 2 mg/ear, while the fractions achieved inhibition rates between 67% and 89%. A proanthocyanidin-type compound, identified as epicatechin–(4β → 8)–epicatechin–(4β → 8, 2β → O → 7) epicatechin, was isolated and showed 72% inhibition of edema (ED50: 0.25 mg/ear, Emax: 52.9%). In the K/C-induced arthritis model, the ethyl acetate extract (400 mg/kg) and the proanthocyanidin-rich fraction (10 mg/kg) significantly reduced inflammation from the first day of administration, achieving reductions of 94% and 62%, respectively. Treatment with S. schiedeana extracts decreased levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-17, and IL-6. At a higher dose, the ethyl acetate extract also reduced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-10 concentrations. The anti-inflammatory effects are likely associated with the inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism via cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) pathways, as well as the modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These findings support the traditional use of S. schiedeana in the treatment of inflammatory conditions [40].
The insecticidal activity of aqueous and ethyl acetate fractions from S. schiedeana stems has been evaluated against L1 larvae of Spodoptera frugiperda and adult apterous Melanaphis sacchari [36,37,51]. The aqueous fraction (obtained from previous maceration of 500 g of dried material in 2.5 L of methanol for three days and concentrated to dryness in a rotatory evaporator prior to fractionating) demonstrated aphidicidal activity against adult female M. sacchari in a concentration-dependent manner (1000–10,000 ppm), producing mortality rates between 34% and 82% (LC50: 3013 ppm) after 72 h [36]. Similarly, the ethyl acetate fraction induced 72% mortality in adult apterous M. sacchari at 10,000 ppm after 72 h [51]. In addition, aqueous stem extracts (250 and 1000 ppm) exhibited insecticidal activities against L1 larvae of S. frugiperda under laboratory and greenhouse conditions. The extract reduced larval weight by up to 50%, increased mortality above 50%, and resulted in complete larval and pupal mortality at higher concentrations. Foliar damage in maize plants was reduced by up to 18% after seven days of exposure [37]. The insecticidal activity of aqueous fraction and aqueous extract was attributed to alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins, which were detected via colorimetric reactions [36,37], while the effects of ethyl acetate fraction were associated with the presence of methyl palmitate and other compounds with low polarity [51]. These findings highlight the potential of S. schiedeana as a source for developing bioinsecticides as an alternative to synthetic pesticides.
In summary, S. schiedeana exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and notable insecticidal activities, supporting its dual pharmacological and agrobiotechnological potential. However, the limited number of studies highlights the need for further research to confirm its efficacy, deepen phytochemical characterization, and elucidate its mechanisms of action.

5.10. Serjania triquetra

In traditional medicine, decoctions from leaves and stems of S. triquetra are used to treat microbial infections. Navarro et al. evaluated the antimicrobial efficacy of methanolic stem extracts against S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and C. albicans. Their findings showed that S. aureus exhibited the highest sensitivity (MIC: 20 mg/mL), whereas the remaining microorganisms showed limited susceptibility (MIC > 40 mg/mL). These relatively high MIC values suggest moderate antimicrobial potency, warranting further phytochemical characterization and mechanistic studies [23]. The extract was obtained via maceration of 100 g of dried material in 1500 mL of methanol for five days and then concentrated under reduced pressure in a rotatory evaporator until dryness and resuspended in 10% Tween 80 prior to in vitro evaluation.
The vasorelaxant activity of concentrated hydroalcoholic stem extracts (0.0011–100 µg/mL) obtained via maceration was evaluated in isolated rat aortic rings. The effect was concentration dependent and endothelium dependent, suggesting involvement of nitric-oxide-mediated pathways. The extract reduced peripheral vascular resistance and produced hypotensive effects comparable to, lower than, or, in some cases, greater than those of carbachol and nifedipine [6]. The vascular activity has been tentatively attributed to ursolic acid and allantoin, which were identified via chromatography and NMR analysis, although definitive mechanistic confirmation remains necessary.
Regarding toxicity, hydroalcoholic extracts from commercial preparations of S. triquetra showed no toxicity in Artemia salina assays (LD50 ≥ 1000 µg/mL), suggesting low acute toxicity under the tested conditions [75].
According to these data, S. triquetra exhibits moderate antimicrobial activity, along with notable vasorelaxant and hypotensive effects, and low acute toxicity, supporting its ethnobotanical use. However, the limited number of studies highlights the need for further research to elucidate its phytochemical profile and underlying mechanisms of action.

5.11. Serjania racemosa

Research on S. racemosa extracts has systematically assessed their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative effects [12]. In this specific Serjania species, NMR spectroscopy has identified saponins, flavonoids, and glycosylated flavonoids in methanol, ethyl acetate, and hexane extracts. These extracts have shown the ability to inhibit free radicals by 22% to 91%, as determined by the DPPH test, and to reduce ferric ions, with FRAP test results ranging from 54 to 520 µmol Fe+2, depending on the extraction solvent used (methanol > ethyl acetate > hexane). In terms of antimicrobial activity, the methanolic extract demonstrated the strongest inhibitory effect (10 mg/mL) against E. coli, Salmonella Typhi, and K. pneumoniae, while the ethyl acetate and hexane extracts were effective against Proteus mirabilis. These findings were compared to ceftriaxone. However, the extracts did not show activity against Burkholderia cepacia, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, and Candida krusei. The antiproliferative activity was tested on the androgen-independent prostate cancer cell line (PC-3), showing a concentration-dependent reduction in cell proliferation, influenced by the type of extract used. According to the authors, at concentrations of 700 and 1000 µg/mL, the ethyl acetate extract significantly impacts the proliferation of the PC-3 prostate cancer cell line, likely through a cytotoxic mechanism.
Further research is needed to identify the secondary metabolites responsible for these effects and to assess the toxicity of the extracts to ensure their safety and effectiveness.

6. Challenges and Prospects of Serjania Species

Despite the growing body of research on Serjania species, the current state of knowledge still presents significant limitations that hinder the effective translation of their findings into pharmacological and biotechnological applications. These limitations arise largely from the predominance of studies using crude extracts, in which biological activities are reported without comprehensive identification or quantification of the compounds responsible. Although associations between phytochemical composition and biological effects can be suggested, such relationships remain largely tentative and should be interpreted with caution.
Another important limitation is the notable gap between the genus’s extensive botanical diversity and the relatively small number of species that have been investigated from phytochemical, pharmacological, or biotechnological perspectives. Numerous species, including Serjania species such as S. communis [76], S. lucianoi [77], S. recemosa [78], S. adenphylla [79], S. comata [80], S. corrugata [81], S. fuscifolia [82], S. littoralis [83], S. meridionalis [84], S. mexicana [85], S. pygmaea [86], S. rzedowskiana [87], S. setlgera [88], S. rosalindae, and S. crucensis [89], have been taxonomically described but remain largely unexplored in terms of chemical composition and biological potential.
From a pharmaceutical perspective, most reported bioactivities, particularly for S. marginata, S. erecta, and S. lethalis, are based on crude extracts rather than isolated compounds. Therefore, there is a clear need to advance toward bioassay-guided fractionation strategies that enable the isolation and identification of the molecules responsible for these effects. In parallel, further investigations at the molecular level are required, including the identification of biological targets, modulation of signaling pathways, and the establishment of structure–activity relationships.
Although several Serjania species have demonstrated low acute toxicity, reports of subacute effects, such as alterations in renal histology and reproductive parameters, highlight the need for comprehensive toxicological evaluation, including chronic exposure studies, genotoxicity, and pharmacokinetic profiling. Rigorous safety assessment is essential for the potential translation of these botanical preparations into evidence-based therapeutic agents. For example, in Mexico, some Serjania species are marketed online as herbal remedies in tea bags, with their recommended uses grounded in traditional practices and ancestral knowledge. However, these products are primarily supported by traditional knowledge rather than robust clinical validation. The absence of standardized extraction protocols, quality control measures, and clinical trials underscores the need for regulatory and scientific frameworks to ensure safety, efficacy, and reproducibility.
From a biotechnological perspective, Serjania species could be a source of bioherbicides and biopesticides for sustainable crop management. Additionally, the fatty acid profile of seeds from some species highlights their potential for biodiesel production. However, their practical application remains limited by the lack of standardized formulations and validation, highlighting the need for translational research. Additionally, the endophytic microorganisms associated with certain species may serve as alternative sources of diverse bioactive compounds.
Bridging this gap will require a shift from predominantly descriptive studies toward integrative and mechanism-oriented research frameworks. The implementation of such approaches will be critical not only for elucidating the functional relevance of Serjania phytochemistry but also for unlocking its full potential in pharmacological and agrobiotechnological applications.

7. Conclusions

Although the phytochemical diversity and biological activities of Serjania species have been relatively underexplored, they exhibit considerable potential as a valuable source of bioactive compounds with pharmacological and biotechnological applications. In particular, this relates to some saponin compounds that are found exclusively in Serjania species.
Evidence indicates that several Serjania species, particularly those more extensively studied, exhibit promising antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties, largely attributable to the presence of saponins, flavonoids, and other secondary metabolites. Despite these advances, the current body of literature remains unevenly distributed across species and research areas, with a predominance of in vitro studies and limited in vivo and clinical validation. Therefore, further in-depth investigations and translational approaches are required to fully elucidate their therapeutic potential and facilitate their integration into pharmaceutical and biotechnological applications.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/molecules31091477/s1, Serjania species information.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M.A.-E.; methodology, A.B.R.-G., C.G.d.L.-G., L.A.R.-C., J.M.S.-J., Z.V., N.G.-S., O.G.-M., J.d.P.R.-A., F.M.-E. and L.M.A.-E., writing—original draft preparation, A.B.R.-G., C.G.d.L.-G., L.A.R.-C., J.M.S.-J., Z.V., N.G.-S., O.G.-M., J.d.P.R.-A., F.M.-E. and L.M.A.-E.; writing—review and editing, J.M.S.-J., Z.V., O.G.-M. and L.M.A.-E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

Ana Belem Rubio-García (CVU: 1041000) and Cecilia Guadalupe de Loza-García (CVU: 2080833), and Luis Antonio Ramirez-Contreras (CVU: 1319432) gratefully acknowledge the financial support for the scholarship provided by SECIHTI-Mexico for Postgraduate studies in the Biosciences program from the Centro Universitario de Los Altos (CUALTOS) of the University of Guadalajara. Thanks to Jaime Venegas Urteaga and Yajaira Magaly Mercado Gómez for their technical support as part of his activities in the “Early incorporation into Research Program” from CUALTOS, and to the Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Médicas (IICM) from CUALTOS for the infrastructure support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
DNADeoxyribonucleic acid
TLCThin-layer chromatography
HPLCHigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography
FIA-ESI-IT-MSFlow Injection Analysis–Electrospray Ionization–Ion Trap–Mass Spectrometry
UHPLC-(ESI)-HRMSUltra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Ionization–High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry
NMRNuclear Magnetic Resonance
GS-MSGas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
GS-FIDGas Chromatography Flame Ionization Detection
HPLC-PDAHigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Photodiode Array Detection
IRInfrared spectroscopy
OCCOpen-Column Chromatography
UPLC-MSUltra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
FTIRFourier Transform Infrared
EI-MSElectron Ionization Mass Spectrometry
COXCyclooxygenase
LOXLipoxygenase
DMSODimethyl sulfoxide
HPLC-DADHigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Diode Array Detection
DPPH2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
ABTS2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)
MICMinimum Inhibitory Concentration
MTT3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide

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  89. Ferrucci, M.S.; Steinmann, V.W. Two New Species of Serjania (Sapindaceae) from Michoacán, Mexico, with Notes on S. biternata. Syst. Bot. 2019, 44, 670–680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit]
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Figure 1. Serjania species (A) S. erecta, (B) S. lethalis, (C) S. salzmaniana, (D) S. glabrata, (E) S. triquetra, and (F) S. marginata. The images were obtained from Ínaturalist.org under CC BY and CC BY-NC 4.0 licenses. Detailed information on images and their collaborators is given in Supplementary Information.
Figure 1. Serjania species (A) S. erecta, (B) S. lethalis, (C) S. salzmaniana, (D) S. glabrata, (E) S. triquetra, and (F) S. marginata. The images were obtained from Ínaturalist.org under CC BY and CC BY-NC 4.0 licenses. Detailed information on images and their collaborators is given in Supplementary Information.
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Figure 2. Traditional medical uses of Serjania species.
Figure 2. Traditional medical uses of Serjania species.
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Figure 3. Chemical structures of main phenolic compounds reported in Serjania species: (A) Quercetin (CID: 5280343), (B) Epicatechin (CID: 72278), (C) Kaempferol (CID: 5280863), (D) Cyanidin (CID: 128861), (E) Apigenin (CID: 5280443), and (F) Luteolin (CID: 5280445). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) were sourced from PubChem [53].
Figure 3. Chemical structures of main phenolic compounds reported in Serjania species: (A) Quercetin (CID: 5280343), (B) Epicatechin (CID: 72278), (C) Kaempferol (CID: 5280863), (D) Cyanidin (CID: 128861), (E) Apigenin (CID: 5280443), and (F) Luteolin (CID: 5280445). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) were sourced from PubChem [53].
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Molecules 31 01477 g004
Figure 4. Chemical structures of main terpenoids reported in Serjania species: (A) α-Thujene (CID: 17868), (B) δ-Terpinene (CID: 6428962), (C) Carvacrol (CID: 10364), (D) Thymol (CID: 6989), (E) α-Cubebene (CID: 442359), and (F) (-)-Spathulenol (CID: 13854255). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
Figure 4. Chemical structures of main terpenoids reported in Serjania species: (A) α-Thujene (CID: 17868), (B) δ-Terpinene (CID: 6428962), (C) Carvacrol (CID: 10364), (D) Thymol (CID: 6989), (E) α-Cubebene (CID: 442359), and (F) (-)-Spathulenol (CID: 13854255). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
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Figure 5. Chemical structures of main saponins reported in Serjania species: (A) Salzmannianoside A (Compound CID: 21604111), (B) Salzmannianoside B (CID: 21604112), (C) Pulsatilla saponin D (CID: 11650910), and (D) Hederagenin (CID: 73299). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
Figure 5. Chemical structures of main saponins reported in Serjania species: (A) Salzmannianoside A (Compound CID: 21604111), (B) Salzmannianoside B (CID: 21604112), (C) Pulsatilla saponin D (CID: 11650910), and (D) Hederagenin (CID: 73299). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
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Figure 6. Chemical structures of other compounds reported in Serjania species. (A) Quinic acid (CID: 6508), (B) capric acid (CID: 2969), (C) methyl hexadecanal (CID: 546976), (D) arachidic acid (CID: 10467), (E) allantoin (CID: 204), and (F) euricic acid (CID: 5281116). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
Figure 6. Chemical structures of other compounds reported in Serjania species. (A) Quinic acid (CID: 6508), (B) capric acid (CID: 2969), (C) methyl hexadecanal (CID: 546976), (D) arachidic acid (CID: 10467), (E) allantoin (CID: 204), and (F) euricic acid (CID: 5281116). The chemical structures and their compound identification (CID) numbers were sourced from PubChem [53].
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Table 1. Claimed ethnobotanical uses for different plant parts of the Serjania species.
Table 1. Claimed ethnobotanical uses for different plant parts of the Serjania species.
Serjania SpeciesCommon
Name		Country or
Region		Claimed Therapeutic UsePlant
Part		Preparation/ApplicationRef.
S. marginataCipó-uvaBrazil
Argentina
Paraguay
Bolivia		Gastrointestinal disorders, ulcers, cancer, and infectionsLeavesDecoction/Oral[8,9,10,11]
S. erectaCipó-cinco-folhas,
cinco-folhas		BrazilInflammation, stomachache, ulcerative diseases, hypertension, gastritis, pain management, and back painStems
Leaves
Roots		Decoction/Oral[4,13,14,15,16,17,29]
S. lethalisTimbo vine
cipó-timbó
timbó		BrazilInflammation, infections, skin diseases, ulcers, diarrhea, fever, malaria, kidney pain, narcoticStems
Leaves		Decoction/Oral[18,19,20,38]
S. caracasanaTingui-da-mataBrazilGastric problemsNo informationNo information[39]
S. goniocarpaBut aakMexicoLeg sores, abscessesNo informationNo information[21]
S. schiedeanaCostilla de vieja,
Cuapalachtle		MexicoKidney inflammation, burning feet, back pain, healing wounds, and bruisesNo informationNo information[37,40]
S. yucatenensisChéen peek
Chac uayam		MexicoAbscesses, infections, vomiting, headache, diarrheaStems
Leaves		Decoction/Oral[22]
S. triquetraPalo de tres costillas, bejuco de tres costillas, tres equisMexicoKidney pain, kidney stones, diuretic agents, hepatitis, urinary infections, and kidney inflammationStems
Leaves		Decoction/Oral[6,7,23]
S. racemosaSeven-hearted bejucoMexicoTreatment of diabetes, diuretic, kidney problems, kidney inflammation, urinary problems, and prostate disordersNo informationNo information[12]
Table 2. Bioactive compounds content in leaves, roots, and stems of different Serjania species.
Table 2. Bioactive compounds content in leaves, roots, and stems of different Serjania species.
Serjania SpeciesPlant PartExtraction MethodSolvent/Liquid-to-Solid
Ratio		Detection/Quantification MethodReported CompoundClassificationIdentified/
Content		Ref.
S. marginataLeavesPercolationEthanol, then the extract was fractionatedNMR3-O-D-β-glucopyranosylsitosterolPhytosterol glycosideIdentified[9]
Pulsatilla saponin DSaponinIdentified
Hederacolchiside ASaponinIdentified
Salzmannianoside BSaponinIdentified
Quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosideFlavonoid glycosideIdentified
EpicatechinFlavanolIdentified
Cassiaoccidentalin
A		Flavonoid glycosideIdentified
Tetrastigma BFlavonoid glycosideIdentified
Apigenin 6-C-β-
boivinopyranosyl-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside		Flavone glycosideIdentified
apigenin 6-C-[2-
O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)]-β-D-xylopyranoside		Flavone glycosideIdentified
proanthocyanidins A-1AnthocyaninIdentified
proanthocyanidins
A-2		AnthocyaninIdentified
Cinnamtannin B-1ProtoanthocyanidinIdentified
LeavesPercolation 70% ethanol solutionTLC
HPLC		SaponinsTerpene Identified[10]
Flavonoid glycosidesPhenolic compoundIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolIdentified
LeavesMacerationDistilled water (10:1 mL/g)FIA-ESI-IT-MSSoluble phenols Phenolic compoundIdentified[11]
FlavonoidsPhenolic compoundIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolIdentified
RutinFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
LeavesUltrasound 70% ethanol solution
(10:1000 mL/mg)		HPLC-PDAProtocatechuic acidPhenolic acidIdentified[25]
(epi)catechin-(epi)catechinFlavanolIdentified
(epi)catechin-A-(epi)catechin-(epi)catechinFlavanolIdentified
(epi)catechinFlavanolIdentified
(epi)catechin-(epi)catechin-(epi)catechinFlavanolIdentified
(epi)catechin-A-(epi)catechinFlavanolIdentified
Quercetin-O-
hexoside		Flavonol
glycoside		Identified
Apigenin-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-
pentoside]		Flavone
glycoside		Identified
Quercetin-O-deoxyhexosideFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
Luteolin-6-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside] (cassiaoccidentalin B)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
Luteolin-8-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside]Flavone
glycoside		Identified
Apigenin-6-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside] (cassiaoccidentalin A)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
Apigenin-8-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside] (tetrastigma B)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
Apigenin-C-hexos-3-uloside-2″-O-deoxyhexosylFlavone
glycoside		Identified
O-deoxyhexosyl-C-glycosyde apigenin derivativeFlavone
glycoside		Identified
Methyl-luteolin-6-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside] (cassiaoccidentalin C)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
O-deoxyhexosyl apigenin derivativeFlavone
glycoside		Identified
Methyl-luteolin-8-C-[2″-O-(deoxyhexosyl)-hexos-3-uloside]Flavone
glycoside		Identified
LeavesMacerationWater
(20 mL/2 g)		FIA-ESI-IT-MSQuinic acidOrganic acidIdentified[27]
QuercitrinFlavonol glycosideIdentified
IsoquercitrinFlavonol glycosideIdentified
Proanthocyanidin trimer—A-typeTanninIdentified
LeavesMacerationWater:
(50:2 mL/g)		Mass spectrometrySoluble phenolsPhenolic compound266.70 mg/g DM[44]
FlavonoidsPhenolic compound189.10 mg/g DM
TanninsPhenolic compound56.3 mg/g DM
Quinic acidCarboxylic acidIdentified
Quercetin-3-
O-rhamnoside (quercitrin		Flavonol
glycoside		Identified
Quercetin-3-O-glucose (isoquercetin)Flavonol
glycoside		Identified
Proanthocyanidin trimer-A.typeAnthocyaninIdentified
LeavesUltrasound 70% ethanol solution
(1:100 mL/mg)		UHPLC-(ESI)-HRMS
NMR		Phenolic acidsPhenolic compoundIdentified[24]
Cinnamic acidsPhenolic acidIdentified
TriterpeneTerpeneIdentified
B-type proanthoccyanidinsAnthocyaninIdentified
B-type proanthoccyanidins trimerAnthocyaninIdentified
B-type proanthoccyanidins tretamerAnthocyaninIdentified
A-type proanthoccyanidins dimerAnthocyaninIdentified
A-type proanthoccyanidins trimerAnthocyaninIdentified
A-type proanthoccyanidins tretamerAnthocyaninIdentified
A-type proanthoccyanidins pentamerAnthocyaninIdentified
Flavonoids glycosylatedPhenolic compoundIdentified
C-glycosylated flavoneFlavone
glycoside		Identified
C,O-glycosylated flavoneFlavone
glycoside		Identified
O-glycosylated flavoneFlavone
glycoside		Identified
Leaves and stemsMacerationDistilled water (200:20 mL/g)Spectrometric techniquesPhenolic
compounds		Phenolic compound195–300 mg/g DM[5]
FlavonoidsPhenolic compound7–255 mg/g DM
TanninsPolyphenol248–265 mg/g DM
S.erectaRootsDecoctionWaterColorimetric testFlavonoidsPhenolic compoundIdentified[15]
SaponinsTerpeneIdentified
TannisPolyphenolIdentified
CatechinsFlavanolIdentified
Cardiac
glycosides		Glycoside compoundIdentified
Steams and
leaves		Maceration Methanol Column chromatographic SaponinsTerpeneIdentified[29]
Terpenes---Identified
FlavonoidsPolyphenolIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolIdentified
Leaves Foam testSaponinsTerpeneIdentified[43]
Spectrophotometric techniquesFlavonoidsFlavonoids212 mg/g DM
Phenolic compoundsPhenolic compounds386 mg/g DM
Tannins Tannins 89 mg/g DM
Leaves PolyisoprenoidsTerpeneIdentified[45]
LeavesSequential extractionN- hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanolNMR
FTIR
TLC		(−)-epicatechinFlavanolIdentified[4]
kaempferolFlavonolIdentified
IsovitexinFlavone
glycoside		Identified
apigenin-8-C-β-D-glucopyranosideFlavone
glycoside		Identified
kaempferol-3,7-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosideFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosideFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
LeavesMacerationEthanolNMRKaempferolFlavonolIdentified[17]
Kaempferol-3,7-di-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosideFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
(-)-epicatechinFlavanolIdentified
Apigenin-6-C-b-D-glucopyranoside (isovitexin)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
apigenin-8-C-b-D-glucopyranoside (vitexin)Flavone
glycoside		Identified
kaempferol-3-O-a-l-rhamnopyranosideFlavonol
glycoside		Identified
kaempferol-3-O-a-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→6)-b-d-
glucopyranoside		Flavonol
glycoside		Identified
LeavesDecoction Distilled boiling water
(90 g/900 mL)		TLC
HPLC 		SaponinsTerpene Identified[13]
TanninsPolyphenolIdentified
Glycosidic flavonoidsPhenolic compoundIdentified
Leaves/stemsMaceration70% ethanol solutionNo informationSaponinsTerpeneIdentified[16]
FlavonoidsPolyphenolIdentified
TriterpenoidsTerpenesIdentified
SteroidsTerpeneIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolIdentified
CatechinsFlavanolIdentified
ShrubHomogenization2:1 v/v Chloroform:methanol solution Gas chromatographyCapric acidFatty acid3.0 g/100 g DM[46]
Palmitoleic acidFatty acid0.19 g/100 g DM
Oleic acidFatty acid1.33 g/100 g DM
Linoleic acidFatty acid0.20 g/100 g DM
α-Linoleic acidFatty acid0.11 g/100 g DM
Arachidonic acidFatty acid0.98 g/100g DM
Eicosadienoic acidFatty acid6.23 g/100 g DM
LeavesMacerationMethanolTLC
HPLC		IsovitexinFlavone
glycoside		Identified[14]
VitexinFlavone
glycoside		Identified
QuercetinFlavonol Identified
S. lethalisLeavesStatic extractionDistilled waterHPLCFlavonoidsPolyphenolIdentified[47]
SaponinsTerpeneIdentified
TerpenoidsTerpeneIdentified
LeavesMaceration90:10 v/v ethanol-waterGC-MS
GC-FID		Benzoic acidPhenolic acidIdentified[30]
α-CubeneMonoterpeneIdentified
4-epi-cubedolMonoterpeneIdentified
(-)-SpathulenolMonoterpeneIdentified
Caryophyllene oxideSesquiterpeneIdentified
Conifery alcoholMonolignolIdentified
HexadecanalFatty aldehyde Identified
6,10,14-Trymethyl-2-pentadecaconeKetoneIdentified
PhytolDiterpene alcoholIdentified
Methyl hexadecanoateFatty acid esterIdentified
Hexadecanoic acidFatty acidIdentified
Ethyl hexadecanoateFatty acid esterIdentified
(E)-PhytolDiterpeneIdentified
Methyl octadecanoateFatty acid esterIdentified
Octadecanoic acidFatty acidIdentified
Phytol acetateDiterpenesIdentified
Ethyl octadecenoateFatty acid esterIdentified
4,8,12,16-Tretamethylheptadecan-4-olideFatty alcoholIdentified
γ-TocopherolMonoterpeneIdentified
β-AmyroneTriterpeneIdentified
β-AmyrinTriterpeneIdentified
Lup-20(29)-en-3-oneTriterpeneIdentified
Lup-20(29)-en-3-olTriterpeneIdentified
GlutinoneTriterpeneIdentified
β-Amyrin acetateTriterpeneIdentified
LeavesHydrodistillationWaterGC-MS
GC-FID		α-ThujeneMonoterpene4.7% *[20]
δ-TerpineneMonoterpene3.9% *
Methyl eter thymolMonoterpene3.8% *
ThymolMonoterpene5.2% *
CarvacrolMonoterpene74.1% *
β-CaryophyleneSesquiterpene5.1% *
SeedsSoxhlet extractionn-hexaneGC-MSPalmitic acidFatty acid3.2% *[48]
Gadoleic acidFatty acid27.5% *
Oleic acidFatty acid9.7% *
Linoleic acidFatty acid1.7% *
Arachidonic acidFatty acid15.8% *
Eicosenoic acidFatty acid69.6% *
Saturated fatty acidsFatty acid19.0% *
Unsaturated fatty acidsFatty acid81.0% *
S. salzmannianaSeedsSoxhlet extractionHexaneGS-MSPalmitic acidFatty acid1.0% *[49]
Arachidic acidFatty acid3.4% *
Behemic acidFatty acid3.4 *
Oleic acidFatty acid7.6% *
Eicosanoid acidFatty acid64.7% *
Erucic acidFatty acid19.0% *
StemsNo informationMethanolTLCSalzmannianoside A SaponinIdentified[50]
Salzmannianoside BSaponinIdentified
Pulsatilla saponin DSaponinIdentified
3-O-[[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)]-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)]-α-L-arabinopyranosyl]oleanolic acidSaponin glycosideIdentified
S. caracasanaSeedsSoxhlet methodHexaneGC-MSPalmitic acidFatty acid2.2% *[49]
Stearic acidFatty acid1.6% *
Arachidic acidFatty acid9.6 *
oleic acidFatty acid8.8% *
Eicosanoid acidFatty acid69.4% *
Erucic acidFatty acid5.0% *
Linoleic acidFatty acid1.4% *
Aerial partsMaceration96% methanol solutionGC–MS
NMR		SpathulenolSesquiterpene4.2% *[39]
6,10,14-Trimethyl-2-pentadecanoneTerpenoid7.3% *
Methyl palmitateFatty acid ester7.7% *
β-SitosterolPhytosterol21.4 mg DM **
β-AmyrinTriterpene1698. mg DM **
FriedelinTriterpene5.6 mg DM **
StigmasterolPhytosterol37.8 mg DM **
β-Sitosterol glucosidePhytosterol glycoside3.2 mg DM **
AllantoinDiureide 6.5 mg DM **
QuercitrinFlavonol
Glycoside		30.9 mg DM **
S. goniocarpaLeavesMacerationMethanolIR
GC-MS
NMR		Goniocarpic acidSesterpeneIdentified[21]
PhytolDiterpene alcoholIdentified
S. schiedeanaStemsMacerationMethanol (5:1 mL/g)Colorimetric testAlkaloidsAlkaloidsIdentified[36]
FlavonoidsPhenolic compoundsIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolsIdentified
StemsMacerationMethanol (5:1 mL/g)Colorimetric testAlkaloidsAlkaloidsIdentified[37]
FlavonoidsPhenolic compoundsIdentified
TanninsPolyphenolsIdentified
StemMacerationMethanol
(2.5:1 mL/g)		TLC
HPLC		epicatechin–
(4β → 8)–epicatechin–(4β → 8, 2β →O→ 7) epicatechin		FlavanolIdentified[40]
StemMacerationMethanolGC/MSPhytolDiterpene alcohol1.18% *[51]
PhytoneSesquiterpene1.13 *
Methyl palmitateFatty acid ester38.66 *
Methyl arachidateFatty acid ester1.05 *
4,8,12,16-tetramethylpentadecan-4-olideMacrolide lactone15.99 *
Methyl linoleateFatty acid ester17.17 *
Methyl stearateFatty acid ester1.23 *
Methyl behenateFatty acid ester2.07 *
Methyl tetradecanoateFatty acid ester12.97 *
Tert-butyl (4-(2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenoxy)-3-nitro-4-oxobutyl)prolinatePhenolic acid4.13 *
S. yucatanensisLeavesMacerationEthanol for extraction and fractionation with hexane and ethyl acetateTLC
GC-MS		lup-20(29)-en-3-oneTriterpeneIdentified[22]
β-caryophyllene oxideSesquiterpeneIdentified
S. triquetraAereal partsSequential extractions:
n-hexane, methanol and ethyl acetate,
evaporated to dryness		No informationIR
1H/13C NMR EIMS		StigmasterolPhytosterolIdentified[7]
Oleanolic acidFatty acidIdentified
Morolic acidTriterpeneIdentified
HederageninSaponinIdentified
11α-hydroperoxy-hederageninSaponinIdentified
StemsMaceration
(collected extract was concentrated by rotatory evaporator)		85% ethanol solutionOCC
TLC
UPLC-MS
RMN		Ethyl palmitateFatty acid ester25.77% **[6]
Stigmasta-3,5-dien-7-oneSteroid13.92% **
Methyl pentacosanoateFatty acid ester10.75% **
Ethyl docosanoateFatty acid ester8.64% **
Ethyl oleateFatty acid ester4.97% **
Stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-olPhytosterol9.96% **
Erucic acidFatty acid1.43% **
S. racemosaLeavesMaceration (collected extract was filtered and concentrated by rotatory evaporator) Hexane
Ethyl acetate Methanol
(50 g/300 mL)		NMRSaponinsTerpenesIdentified[12]
FlavonoidsGlycosylated flavonoidsIdentified
* Relative amount after comparison of the integrative area of the chromatogram; ** Estimated value from the yield extract; DM: dry matter.
Table 3. Research reports and toxicological evaluations of Serjania marginata extracts.
Table 3. Research reports and toxicological evaluations of Serjania marginata extracts.
ActivityPlant Part/Conditioning SampleExtraction Method/Extract ConditioningSolvent/Liquid-to-Solid RatioResuspension/
Fractionation		Dose/
Concentration		In Vitro/In Vivo ModelModel Assay/
Control		Relevant ResultsRef.
AntimicrobialLeaves
(Dried at 60 °C/24 h,
concentrate, and lyophilized)		Maceration
(Extract was concentrated via evaporation)		Water
(1:10 mL/mg)		Resuspension with distilled water15–1000 µg/mLBurkholderia cepacia, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus. epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus saprophyticusMicrodilution
Control: Tetracycline		All aqueous extracts exhibited antibacterial properties[5]
AntimicrobialLeavesMacerationEthanol: water 7:3 v/vResuspended in 0.9% saline solution7.81–1000 µg/mLEscherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella setubal, Helicobacter pylori, Candida albicansMicrodilution
Controls: ampicillin and amoxicillin		The extract showed antimicrobial activity in a concentration- and strain-dependent response[10]
AntimicrobialLeaves
(Dried at 60 °C)		Maceration (Concentrated via evaporation)95% ethanol solutionHexane fraction (rich in essential oils)0.1–1000 µg/mLBacillus toyonensis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus proteolyticusDisk diffusion/No informationThe extract did not show antimicrobial activity against Bacillus species[61]
AntimicrobialLeaves
(Dried at room temperature)		Percolation
(Extract was lyophilized)		70% ethanol solutionResuspended in 5% DMSO solution0.98–1000 µg/mLMycobacterium tuberculosis,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis		Microdilution/No informationThe extract exhibited antimicrobial effects in a concentration- and strain-dependent response[62]
Anti-inflammatoryLeavesMacerationHydroalcoholicResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)30, 100, and 300 mg/kgMurine modelCarrageenan-induced paw edema The extract showed anti-inflammatory properties[11]
Anti-inflammatoryLeaves
(Dried at room temperature)		Percolation
(Extract was lyophilized)		70% ethanol solutionResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)30, 100, and 300 mg/kgMurine modelCarrageenan-induced paw edema/DexamethasoneThe extract showed anti-inflammatory properties[62]
AntinociceptiveLeavesMacerationHydroalcoholic
(10 g/100 mL)		Resuspended in saline solution (0.9%)30, 100, and 300 mg/kgMurine modelAcid formalin-induced nociception The extracts reduce nociception in a dose-dependent response[11]
AntihyperalgesicLeavesPercolationEthanolResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)30, 100, and 300 mg/kgSwiss murine modelVon Frey acetone test
Control: dexamethasone		The extract effectively reduced mechanical hyperalgesia[11]
AntioxidantLeaves
Steams		Maceration WaterLyophilized extract was resuspended in distilled water 50–1000 µg/mLDPPHInhibition of radicalThe stems showed higher antioxidant properties than the leaves[5]
CytotoxicLeaves
(Dried at room temperature)		Percolation
(vacuum concentrated to
dryness at 40 °C and lyophilized) 		Ethanol (70:30 v/v)The dried extract was fractionated with water: butanol solution (30:70 v/v) 50–500 mg/mLNon-tumor gastric epithelium cells
and gastric adenocarcinoma cells		MTT
Negative control: PBS		The extract showed cytotoxicity against cells in a concentration-dependent manner[26]
CytotoxicLeavesNo informationEthanolNo information150–300 µg/mLHuman normal and
cancer gastric cells		MTT assay
Cell proliferation curves
AO/EB staining		The extract showed cytotoxicity against cancer (150 µg/mL) and normal cells (µg/mL) in a concentration-dependent manner[8]
AntimutagenicLeavesNo informationEthanolNo information150–300 µg/mLHuman normal and cancer gastric cellsCytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assayThe extract did not show mutagenic effects[8]
AntimutagenicLeavesMacerationEthanol: water 7:3 v/vExtract diluted in DMSO2.5–20 mg/plateSalmonella typhimuriumAmes testIt was reported that the absence of mutagenic effects[10]
AntimutagenicLeaves
(dried at room temperature)		Percolation
(vacuum concentrated to
dryness at 40 °C and lyophilized)		Ethanol (70:30 v/v)The dried extract was fractionated with water: butanol solution (30:70 v/v) 50–500 mg/mLNon-tumor gastric epithelium cells and gastric adenocarcinoma cellsMTT:CBMN-cyt
Positive control: DXR (0.2 µg/mL)		The extract did not show mutagenic effects[26]
HepatoprotectiveLeaves
(dried at 37 °C for 48 h)		Maceration
(lyophilized)		Water5 mg of dry extract solubilized in minimal methanol224.3 mg/kg/dayNile tilapiaFeeding trial/Control: commercial food The extract showed hepatoprotective effects[27]
GastroprotectiveLeavesMacerationEthanol: water 7:3 v/vResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)125–500 mg/kgWistar ratEthanol-induced ulcers, ischemia–reperfusion
Controls: carbenoxolone, lansoprazole		The extract reduces the gastric lesions by 60-90% at 500 mg/kg[10]
GastroprotectiveLeaves
(dried at 37 °C for 48 h)		Maceration
(lyophilized)		Water5 mg of dry extract solubilized in minimal methanol224.3 mg/kg/dayNile tilapiaFeeding trial/Control: commercial food The extract exhibited gastroprotective effects and stimulated intestinal digestion[27]
Anti-diarrheaLeavesMacerationEthanol: water 7:3 v/vResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)250 mg/kgWistar ratCastor oil-induced diarrhea
Control: loperamide and saline solution		The extract did not show a decrease or an increase in the severity of diarrhea[10]
PhotoprotectiveLeave
Steams		Maceration
(vacuum concentrated to
dryness at 40 °C and lyophilized		WaterResuspended in water200–1000 µg/mLSpectrophotometerSPF spectrophotometric methodThe leaf extract demonstrated a superior sun protective factor than the steam extract[5]
Acute oral toxicityLeavesMacerationEthanol: water 7:3 v/vResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)5000 mg/kgWistar ratAcute toxicity assay
Control: saline solution		No sign and symptoms of toxicity were reported[10]
Acute and
subacute toxicity		Leaves
(dried at 37 °C for 48 h)		Maceration
(Lyophilized)		WaterResuspended in saline solution (0.9%)30–2000 mg/kgWistar ratsSubchronic toxicity assay/
Saline solution (0.9%) 		No toxicity was observed. However, after 14 days of daily administration, alterations in kidney histology and an increase in abnormal sperm were reported.[44]
ToxicityLeaves
Steams		MacerationWaterResuspended in distilled water50–1000 µg/mLArtemia salinaAcute toxicity assay
Negative control: saline solution		The extract did not show toxicity against A. salina[5]
InsecticideLeaves (Dried at 40 °C)Maceration (Evaporation)Ethanol
Water		Resuspended in distilled water1000–10,000 µg/mLPlutella xylostellaFood preference and ovipositionThe extracts were effective as oviposition suppressants for this insect[63]
InsecticideLeaves (dried at 40 °C in an air oven)MacerationWaterDirect use of filtered extract5 and 10% w/vPlutella xylostellaDirect contact toxicity assay on a modelBoth concentrations were toxic to eggs and pupae of P. xylostella. The 10% concentration was the most effective in terms of larval mortality[32]
AntiparasiticLeaves (dried at 40 °C in an air oven)MacerationWaterDirect use of filtered extract5 and 10% w/vTetrastichus howardiObservational assay on morphological changes in the modelThe extracts did not show antiparasitic properties against T. howardi[28]
Table 4. Research reports and toxicological evaluations of Serjania erecta extracts.
Table 4. Research reports and toxicological evaluations of Serjania erecta extracts.
ActivityPlant Part/Conditioning SampleExtraction Method/Extract ConditioningSolvent/Liquid-to-Solid RatioResuspension/
Fractionation		Dose/
Concentration		In Vitro/In Vivo ModelModel Assay/
Controls		Relevant ResultsRef.
AntimicrobialLeaves
(Dried at 40 °C)		Maceration
(Evaporation)		70% ethanol solutionResuspended in 10% DMSO solution6.25–50 µg/mLMycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, Mycoplasma argininiMicrodilution
Control: DMSO (10%)		The extracts showed antimicrobial activity in concentration- and strain-dependent response[65]
AntimicrobialLeaves
Roots		Maceration at room temperatureEthanolFractionation: (water, methanol, acetone) 10–400 µg/mLStaphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella setubal, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicansRezasurin Microtiter Assay/Control: isoniazisLeaves and roots inhibited the growth of all tested microorganisms[17]
AntimicrobialLeaves
(Dried at 60 °C)		Maceration
(Evaporation)		Ethanol (95%): water 1:1Hexane fraction (rich in essential oils) 1–100 µg/mLBacillus toyonensis, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus proteolyticusDisk diffusionThe extract showed antimicrobial activity against the tested microorganisms[61]
AntiparasiticLeaves (dried at 40 °C in an air oven)MacerationWaterDirect use of filtered extract5 and 10% w/vTetrastichus howardiDirect contact assay
Negative control: water
Positive control: acephate		The aqueous extract did not interfere with the parasitism of T. howardi on 4th instar larvae of P. xylostella.[28]
Anti-inflammatoryLeavesSequential extractionEthanol, N-hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanolFractionated with water, methanol, and acetone30, 100, and 300 mg/kgMurine modelCarrageenan pleurisy
Zymosan peritonitis		The extract exhibited anti-inflammatory
properties in a concentration dependence		[4]
Anti-inflammatorySteam
Leaves		MacerationEthanol 0.003–4 mg/earMurine modelEar edemaTopical application of the extract and its fractions caused a dose-dependent reduction in ear edema and tissue myeloperoxidase activity[16]
Anti-inflammatoryLeaves
(Dried)		Maceration
(lyophilized)		95% EthanolSaline solution300 mg/kgMurine modelInduction of inflammatory pulp tissue/Saline solution The extract did not show anti-inflammatory effects on pulp tissue in the analyzed periods.[66]
AntioxidantLeaves
Steam
Roots		Decoction 24 h in the darkDistilled boiling water (90 g/900 mL)Crude extract2.5–10 mg/mLDPPHInhibition of radical/Rutin as a positive controlThe extracts exhibited antioxidant properties[13]
AntioxidantLeaves
Roots		Maceration at room temperatureEthanolFractionation: with water, methanol, acetone10–400 µg/mLDPPH
β-carotene–linoleic acid assay		Inhibition of radical/Quercetin
β-carotene-linoleic acid assay/BHT		The extracts showed low antioxidant properties[17]
AntioxidantLeavesMaceration
(Evaporation)		Methanol
Chloroform		No information40–640 mg/mLDPPH
β-carotene–linoleic acid assay		DPPH test
Positive control: quercetin
β-carotene–linoleic acid assay
Positive control: quercetin		The extract showed antioxidant properties[45]
AnalgesicLeavesDirect extraction
Sequential extraction (concentrated under vacuum)		Ethanol
N- hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol		Fractionation with water, methanol, and acetone30, 100, and 300 mg/kgMice
Leukocytes
Neutrophils		Formalin test control/
Control indomethacin, morphine		The extract showed analgesic properties in a dose-dependent manner[4]
NeuroprotectiveLeavesMaceration
for three days		Methanol
(concentrated under vacuum at 50 °C and further lyophilized)		The crude extract was dissolved in methanol25–200 µg/mLRat adrenal pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell lineMTT assay (cell viability), controls: untreated cells and Aβ-treated cellsIsolated compounds from leaves of S. erecta exhibited neuroprotective effects in a concentration-dependent response[14]
Anti-hypertensiveRootsDecoctionWaterAdministered with condensed milk (oral intake)10 mL of 5% w/v solutionMurine modelDirect measurement of blood pressureThe treatment improved endothelial function and promoted nitric oxide production by the endothelium[15]
Anti-ulcerLeavesMaceration in chloroform and methanol
Three extractions, 48 h each: concentrated by rotary evaporation at 38 °C		Extract in chloroform:
(4 L/Kg)
Extract in methanol:
(4 L/Kg)		No information125–5000 mg/kgIn vivo
Murine model		Ethanol-induced gastric ulcer model/Control positive: carbenoxolone: 100 mg/kgThe extract showed gastroprotective properties[45]
AntivenomLeaves (dried at 60 °C in an air oven)Maceration for 72 h
(concentrated via
rotary evaporation at 50 °C) 		MethanolExtract was fractionatedVenom/toxin with the extracts at a 1:30 (w/w)Enzymatic assayIndirect hemolytic assay for phospholipase A2 activity.
Positive control: Bothrops jararacussu snake venom
Negative control: PBS		The crude extract and the fractions neutralized the toxic activities of the Bothrops jararacussu snake venom and the isolated myotoxins.[29]
ToxicityLeaves
Steam
Roots		Decoction 24 h in the darkDistilled boiling water (90 g/900 mL)Crude extract50–1250 mg/kgMurine modelScreening, biochemical and hematological analysisThe extract did not show toxicity[13]
ToxicityLeavesMaceration in chloroform and methanol
Three extractions, 48 h each: concentrated by rotary evaporation at 38 °C		Extract in chloroform: (4:1 L/Kg)
Extract in methanol: (4L/Kg)
No information125–5000 mg/kgMurine modelAcute oral toxicity assay
Control group: saline solution		The extract did not promote acute oral toxicity[45]
ToxicityLeavesMaceration:
for 24 h at room temperature, followed by filtration and lyophilization		Water
1:1000 mL/µg		Water at different concentrations 2.5–150 µg/mL2.5–150 µg/mLPiaractus mesopotamicusToxicity bioassay:
Blood plasma biochemical analysis and electrolyte assay
Histopathological analysis: Light microscopy-based histopathology/untreated fish
Morphometric analysis: organ morphometric/untreated fish		The extract caused morphofunctional and histological alterations in the gills and liver. Mortality occurred at extract levels above 50 μg/mL[43]
InsecticideLeaves
(dried at 40 °C in an air oven)		MacerationWaterDirect use of filtered extract5 and 10% w/vPlutella xylostellaDirect contactBoth concentrations were toxic to eggs, larvae, and pupae of P. xylostella[28]
PesticideLeaves
(dried at 40 °C/120 h)		Maceration
(Evaporation)		MethanolResuspended in distilled water containing 2.5% (v/v) methyl alcohol0.0078–20 µg/mLChrysodeixis includensInhibition of growth and development
Control: distilled water containing 2.5% (v/v) methyl alcohol		Extract treatments increased the duration of the larval, pupal, and total development[67]
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MDPI and ACS Style

Rubio-García, A.B.; de Loza-García, C.G.; Silva-Jara, J.M.; González-Silva, N.; Ramirez-Contreras, L.A.; Villagran, Z.; Graciano-Machuca, O.; Ramírez-Anaya, J.d.P.; Martínez-Esquivias, F.; Anaya-Esparza, L.M. Traditional Uses, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Molecules 2026, 31, 1477. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31091477

AMA Style

Rubio-García AB, de Loza-García CG, Silva-Jara JM, González-Silva N, Ramirez-Contreras LA, Villagran Z, Graciano-Machuca O, Ramírez-Anaya JdP, Martínez-Esquivias F, Anaya-Esparza LM. Traditional Uses, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Molecules. 2026; 31(9):1477. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31091477

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rubio-García, Ana Belem, Cecilia Guadalupe de Loza-García, Jorge Manuel Silva-Jara, Napoleón González-Silva, Luis Antonio Ramirez-Contreras, Zuamí Villagran, Omar Graciano-Machuca, Jessica del Pilar Ramírez-Anaya, Fernando Martínez-Esquivias, and Luis Miguel Anaya-Esparza. 2026. "Traditional Uses, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Prospects" Molecules 31, no. 9: 1477. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31091477

APA Style

Rubio-García, A. B., de Loza-García, C. G., Silva-Jara, J. M., González-Silva, N., Ramirez-Contreras, L. A., Villagran, Z., Graciano-Machuca, O., Ramírez-Anaya, J. d. P., Martínez-Esquivias, F., & Anaya-Esparza, L. M. (2026). Traditional Uses, Phytochemicals, Biological Activities, and Biotechnological Applications of Serjania Species: A Review of Current Knowledge and Future Prospects. Molecules, 31(9), 1477. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules31091477

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