Next Article in Journal
Synthesis of β-Cyclodextrin-Functionalized Silver Nanoparticles and Their Application for Loading Cytisine and Its Phosphorus Derivative
Next Article in Special Issue
Efficient Hydrogen Production from Ammonia Using Ru Nanoparticles on Ce-Based Metal–Organic Framework (MOF)-Derived CeO2 with Oxygen Vacancies
Previous Article in Journal
Flaxseed in Diet: A Comprehensive Look at Pros and Cons
Previous Article in Special Issue
Engineering pH and Temperature-Triggered Drug Release with Metal-Organic Frameworks and Fatty Acids
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

The Application of Multifunctional Metal–Organic Frameworks for the Detection, Adsorption, and Degradation of Contaminants in an Aquatic Environment

1
School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
2
Shandong High-Tech Medical Device Innovation Center Co., Ltd., Zibo 255000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2025, 30(6), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061336
Submission received: 2 January 2025 / Revised: 1 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 17 March 2025

Abstract

:
Water pollution poses a severe threat to both aquatic ecosystems and human health, highlighting the crucial importance of monitoring and regulating its levels in water bodies. In contrast to traditional single-treatment approaches, multiple-treatment methods enable the simultaneous detection and removal of water pollutants using a single material. This innovation not only offers convenience but also fosters a more holistic and effective approach to water remediation. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are versatile porous materials that offer significant potential for use in wastewater treatment. This article examines the latest developments in the application of MOFs for multifaceted wastewater treatment. MOFs are used for simultaneous detection and removal, or for the detection and degradation of contaminants. Some MOFs exhibited different functions for different contaminants, and some MOFs showed one function (adsorption or detection) for more than one contaminant. All the multifunctional MOFs facilitate the multiple treatment of the real wastewater. Lastly, existing challenges and future outlooks concerning MOF materials for wastewater treatment are also addressed in this paper.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, rapid advancements in science, technology, industry, and population growth have led to increasingly severe pollution in aquatic environments, becoming a global issue of growing concern [1,2]. The uncontrolled discharge of pollutants, including industrial wastewater, agricultural runoff, domestic sewage, and microplastics, not only disrupts aquatic ecosystems but also poses significant risks to human drinking water safety, thereby impacting public health [2,3]. As a result, water pollution has garnered widespread attention, prompting researchers to develop various methods for treating these contaminants.
To date, numerous wastewater treatment methods have been employed to restore or facilitate the restoration of aquatic environments [1,4,5], and they can largely be categorized into three strategies: sensing, separation, and degradation.
(1) Sensing: This method involves the detection of pollutants with high sensitivity and selectivity. Analytical techniques commonly used for detection include gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), Raman spectroscopy (RS), thin-layer chromatography (TLC), paper-based microfluidics, and electrochemical biosensing [4,6,7]. Additionally, various materials such as nanomaterials, porous materials, polymeric materials, and small molecules are developed to detect pollutants, often with the aid of fluorescence spectrometry, UV–visible spectrophotometry, or even visual inspection [8,9,10,11].
(2) Separation: Separation methods are commonly used to remove pollutants from water, including adsorption, membrane filtration, ion exchange, coagulation, chemical precipitation, flocculation, and electrodialysis [12,13,14]. Among these, adsorption-based removal is one of the most widely employed techniques for wastewater treatment [15,16,17,18,19]. A variety of materials with high adsorption capacity and efficiency, for instance zeolites, clay minerals, activated carbon, and other porous materials, have gained attention because of their low cost, environmental friendliness, and ease of use [17,20].
(3) Degradation: Degradation methods are widely used to break down organic pollutants in water, typically through oxidation or reduction reactions [21,22]. Several degradation techniques have been developed, including photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, the Fenton reaction and Fenton-like reactions, ozonation, and chlorination [22,23,24,25]. Photocatalysis, which utilizes solar energy to generate photogenerated carriers (electrons and holes) on semiconductors, is a particularly promising approach [26]. Over time, various semiconductors, including metal oxides (e.g., TiO2, Fe2O3, ZnO), metal sulfides (e.g., CuS, CdS, FeS), and high-entropy alloys, have been developed [4,27,28]. Additionally, organic materials such as g-C3N4, graphene, carbon nanotubes, covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and conjugated polymers have been explored as photocatalysts [28,29,30,31,32]. Inorganic–organic hybrid materials, such as metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and metal–organic complexes, are also commonly used [31,33]. Recently, MOFs have garnered considerable interest owing to their distinctive characteristics, showing great promise in wastewater treatment [20,34].
In the development of materials for wastewater treatment, single-functional materials have traditionally been the focus of research. For example, materials designed for pollutant sensing typically have limited separation or degradation capabilities [2,20]. Similarly, materials used for separation generally do not possess strong sensing or degradation abilities. While materials with both separation and degradation functions are sometimes combined for pollutant treatment, it remains a significant challenge to integrate multiple functions into a single catalyst [20,35]. This is due to the difficulty in matching components with high compatibility while minimizing the interference between them [36]. Nonetheless, researchers have been working on the development of multifunctional materials due to their promising potential.
For instance, a sensing probe with separation capabilities allows pollutants to be detected and subsequently separated without concerns of probe contamination, as it can continue to function in subsequent treatment steps [6,9]. Similarly, a semiconductor catalyst used in photodegradation benefits from enhanced performance if it also has a strong adsorption capacity, leading to improved treatment efficiency [37]. Additionally, a porous material used for pollutant adsorption may not require regeneration (typically achieved by desorption) if it also possesses degradation functionality [4,37]. Consequently, multifunctional materials are receiving increasing attention and are being developed across diverse fields, such as biomedicine, energy, and materials science.
Moreover, because real-world wastewater is often contaminated with a wide variety of pollutants, it is inefficient and economically unfeasible to treat only one type of contaminant at a time [20]. To address this, many researchers have developed multifunctional materials capable of simultaneously treating multiple pollutants. For example, a sensing probe may detect several pollutants at once [38,39], or a material may both adsorb and degrade different contaminants simultaneously [4,40]. The ability to treat multiple pollutants with a single material or process represents a significant advancement in wastewater treatment. Therefore, investigating materials with multiple functions, such as sensing, separation, or degradation, or materials capable of addressing multiple pollutants at once is of great importance [2,20]. However, the design and versatility required to construct such multifunctional materials remain a challenge.
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), crystalline materials made from organic linkers and metal nodes (e.g., metal clusters or ions), have garnered considerable attention because of their diverse geometries, ultra-high specific surface areas, and tunable structures and functionalities [3,33,41]. These features make MOFs highly suitable for applications in sensors, catalysis, energy storage, and adsorption [20,33,42]. Recently, MOFs have been increasingly explored in wastewater treatment, specifically for contaminant sensing, separation, and degradation.
MOF materials have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in wastewater treatment. Their porosity and specific adsorption sites endow them with a high adsorption capacity and efficiency for various contaminants in water [43,44]. Thanks to their tunable properties, MOFs can be modified with diverse ligands, metal ions, or clusters, thereby imparting them with sensing and catalytic functionalities [2,35]. Numerous studies have showcased MOFs’ diverse and exceptional capabilities, including high removal efficiency, low detection limits, and high catalytic activity in wastewater treatment [2,43]. When compared to other materials, the porosity and tunability of MOFs stand out prominently, granting them numerous advantages across different applications.
MOF materials exhibit significant and broad application prospects in numerous fields [43,44]. However, their large-scale industrial application still faces numerous challenges [45,46]. For instance, the stability of MOFs, which is susceptible to environmental factors such as temperature and pH values, is inferior to that of carbon materials and zeolites. Additionally, the preparation cost of MOFs poses a limitation on their widespread adoption. Furthermore, the challenge lies in skillfully constructing their structure to maximize their functional performance. Fortunately, researchers are diligently striving to overcome these obstacles and advance the application of MOFs [45].
While several reviews have addressed the use of MOFs in various applications, most focus on single-function MOFs [20,35]. Bu and colleagues [20] have reviewed the design of multifunctional MOFs and their application in water pollution treatment. However, the advancements in multifunctional MOFs over the past two years have yet to be comprehensively summarized. Moreover, only a few studies have explored MOFs that can treat more than one contaminant simultaneously.
In this review, we examine the design and application of multifunctional MOF materials in sensing, separation (adsorption), and degradation, either for a single pollutant or for multiple pollutants, as shown in Figure 1. We also address the challenges associated with treating multiple water pollutants and propose strategies for future developments in this field.

2. Simultaneous Detection and Adsorption-Based Removal Contaminants

Due to their high porosity and specific adsorption sites on the surface, MOFs are often initially considered for their adsorption capabilities [17,47,48,49]. In addition, MOFs can be functionalized with specific ligands or metal ions, making them excellent candidates for sensor fabrication [36,50]. As a result, many studies have explored the multifunctionality of MOFs in the detection and removal of contaminants, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of MOFs for simultaneous detection and removal of contaminants.
Table 1. Summary of MOFs for simultaneous detection and removal of contaminants.
CatalystContaminantDetectionAdsorption
Capacity
Time for EquilibriumYearRef.
MethodLOD
Zr-MOFTC and OTCFluorescent6.14 and 14.59 nM262.46 and 267.92 mg/g30–360 min2024[6]
Znq2@ZIF-8TCFluorescent0.13 μmol/L377.02 mg/g30–360 min2024[8]
apt-NiCoFe-MOF-74TC, OTC, CTC, and DOXFluorescent1.3, 1.4, 5.5, and 3.0 nM97.4, 105.2, 115.6, and 114.7 mg/g10 min2024[9]
Colorimetric6, 10, 49, and 2.8 nM
Zr-MOF
(BMAT3H5)
TCFluorescent28 ± 0.012 nM317.6 mg/g.5 min2025[10]
Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOFTCFluorescent2 μg/L144.9 mg/g80 min2023[11]
Zn-MOFOTCFluorescent26.9 nM5.8 mg/g4 h2023[51]
Eu-CuBi2O4@ZIF-8TCFluorescent17 nM377.07 mg/g2 h2022[52]
Eu-MOFTCFluorescent3 nM387.14 mg/g500 min2021[53]
Eu/Zr-MOFTCFluorescent0.92 ng/mL289 mg/g150 min2021[54]
Cd-MOFchloramphenicol (CHL)Fluorescent91 ppb-50 h2020[55]
Eu3+-MOFMalachite green (MG)Fluorescent34.20 nM97.64% based on 20 mg Eu3+-MOF in 10 mL
MG (10 mg/L) under pH 7 at 35 °C in 120 min.
120 min2024[15]
Leuco-malachite green (LMG)1.98 nM--
Zr-Sti2,4,6-trinitrophenyl phenol (TNP)Fluorescent0.68 μM (156 ppb)ca. 78 mg/g-2023[56]
Cd-MOF@ macroporous melamine foamTNPLuminescence0.38 μM456.16 mg/g30 min2022[57]
Cu+-tpp@ZIF-8P-arsanilic acidFluorescent0.4 µg/L303.0 mg/g240 min2022[58]
Poly(DES)@MOFDiclofenacUV spectrophotometer0.84 μg/mL19.39 mg/g2 h2024[59]
ZIF-8-on-Zn2@SAPesticide: thiophanate-methyl [1.2-α-(3-methoxycarbonyl-2-thioureido)benzene]Fluorescent0.14 μM161.8 mg/g~280 min2022[37]
kgd-M1@ACPsPesticide: 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroanilineFluorescent0.09 µM83.3 mg/g240 min2022[60]
Zn2@ZIF-8@SAPesticide: quinclorac, 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline, and thiabendazoleFluorescent0.08, 0.09, and 0.37 μM142.1 mg/g20 h2022[61]
UiO-66-NH2@AuNCs/ZIF-8Hg2+Fluorescent0.42 ppb 129.9 mg/g30 min2024[62]
Sm-MOFHg2+Fluorescent0.87 μM0.97 μmol/4 mg2 h2021[63]
Zn2(BDC)2(TzTz)2Hg2+Colorimetric-1428 mg/g30 s–30 min2021[64]
Thioketone Al-MOF nanorodsHg2+Colorimetric0.8 ppb1110 mg/g-2020[65]
Zr-StiCr2O72−Fluorescent0.73 μM (159 ppb)43.38 mg/g-2023[56]
Dyes⊂MOF-801Cr2O72−Fluorescent0.03 mM83 mg/g3 min2019[66]
HSB-W15-NSFe3+Fluorescent0.837 μM250.81 mg/g5 min2024[67]
Zn-MOFFe2+UV-Vis spectroscopy0.129 μM208.7 mg/g30 min2023[68]
Pb2+0.113 μM192.6 mg/g
V5+0.246 μM203.6 mg/g
MIL-101(Fe)Fe3+Fluorescent1.8 μM3.5 mM/g180 min2019[69]
Cu2+1.6 μM0.9 mM/g180 min
Pb2+5.2 μM1.1 mM/g180 min
Fe3O4/MOF/L-cysteineCd2+ICP-AES10.6 ng/mL248.24 mg/g10 min2018[70]
Fluorescent0.94 ng/mL
NH2-MIL-88(Fe)As5+Fluorescent4.2 ppb125 mg/g24 h2017[71]
Tb-BTCphosphorusFluorescent2.97 μM222.2 mg/g30 min2023[72]
In(tcpp)FFluorescent1.3 μg/L36.7 mg/g30 min2021[73]
Perfluorooctanoic acid1.9 μg/L980.0 mg/g30 min
Ag@UiO-66-(COOH)2IFluorescent0.58 ppm235.5 mg/g60 min2022[74]

2.1. Organics

2.1.1. Antibiotic Treatment

Antibiotic contamination in wastewater has garnered significant attention due to its potentially detrimental impacts on ecosystems and human health. This complex issue requires comprehensive approaches for effective treatment [4,75,76]. Various MOF-based materials have been applied to address antibiotic pollution in aquatic environments.
Li et al. [6] developed a dual-functional Zr-based MOF (Zr-MOF) using a tetra-carboxylate ligand, H4SBTD-NH2 (as shown in Figure 2), for the simultaneous detection and removal of tetracyclines (TCs). The detection was based on a luminescence quenching effect for both TC and oxytetracycline (OTC), with limits of detection (LOD) of 6.14 nM and 14.59 nM, respectively, showing good stability and selectivity. Zr-MOF also exhibited excellent adsorption capacities of 262.46 and 267.92 mg/g for TC and OTC, respectively. The detection and adsorption mechanisms were attributed to the inner filter effect (IFE), electron transfer, and specific host–guest interactions between Zr-MOF and the contaminants. The results of FT-IR spectra demonstrated that the hydrogen bond and π-π stacking between benzene rings of TCs and Zr-MOF contributed to the adsorption. Additionally, the Zr-O bond might also be involved in the adsorption process. This work highlights the potential of Zr-MOF as a multifunctional material for treating antibiotics in aquatic environments. The usage of ligands with various functional group is an ideal method for endowing MOFs with different functions, making them obviously superior to other materials, such as carbon materials and zeolites.
Yang and coworkers [8] synthesized a hybrid MOF material, Znq2@ZIF-8, with an octahedral core–shell structure by crystallizing ZIF-8 on the Znq2 surface. A strong green emission (495 nm) was observed for the Znq2@ZIF-8 solution. Upon the introduction of tetracycline (TC), the fluorescence was quenched due to energy competition absorption, indicating the material’s recognition ability for TC and structurally similar molecules. The selectivity for TC was confirmed through tests with various ions and antibiotics, with an LOD of 0.13 μmol/L. Additionally, Znq2@ZIF-8 exhibited good adsorption capacity for TC removal. It was found that π-π stacking between the TCs (benzene rings) and Znq2@ZIF-8 (imidazole rings and benzene rings), and coordination bonds between the Zn metal center and the amino and/or hydroxyl groups of TCs might be generated, which may have contributed to the adsorption. The study demonstrated its multifunctional potential for the simultaneous detection and removal of TC from wastewater.
Wang and Zhang [9] developed NiCoFe-MOF modified with TC aptamers (apt-NiCoFe-MOF-74), resulting in a controllable hollow structure. This material displayed both colorimetric and fluorescent detection capabilities, as well as excellent removal efficiency for TCs in water. Using a colorimetric detection system with 3,3,5,5-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB), H2O2, and NaAc-HAc buffer, very low LODs were achieved for tetracycline (TET), oxytetracycline (OTC), chlortetracycline (CTC), and doxycycline (DOX), at 6 nM, 10 nM, 49 nM, and 2.8 nM, respectively. In fluorescence detection, the LODs were 1.3, 1.4, 5.5, and 3.0 nM for TET, OTC, CTC, and DOX, respectively. The apt-NiCoFe-MOF-74 exhibited strong adsorption capacities for these antibiotics, with values of 97.4, 105.2, 115.6, and 114.7 mg/g for TET, OTC, CTC, and DOX, respectively. The material demonstrated its applicability in real sample detection, such as the analysis of TC contamination in honey. The modification of transition metals on MOFs is a common and effective method to endow MOFs with various functions, because those metals have an excellent catalytic ability.
To enhance the performance of MOF-based multifunctional materials, some researchers have combined MOFs with other porous materials. For example, Wu and colleagues [10] grew Zr-MOF in situ on bacterial nanocellulose (BC), producing the composite BMAT3H5 for the simultaneous detection and adsorption of TC (Figure 3). The BC contributed to the stability of the MOF, and the molecular mass transfer efficiency was improved by the aerogel microspheres. The fluorescence detection of TC yielded a low LOD of 28 ± 0.012 nM and an adsorption capacity of 317.6 mg/g.
Pu and coworkers [11] prepared a magnetic MOF material, Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOF, using a layer-by-layer self-assembly method, as shown in Figure 4A. In this structure, Eu3+ coordinated with TC as a bidentate ligand, and the “antenna effect” (AE) sensitized Eu3+ to emit red light, making Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOF an effective sensor for TC detection with an LOD of 2 μg/L and excellent selectivity. Due to its large specific surface area, Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOF demonstrated a high adsorption capacity for TC (144.9 mg/g). Due to the β-diketone structure of TC, coordination between TCs and Eu3+ was generated, and π-π stacking was generated, which contributed to the adsorption. The core of Fe3O4 facilitated the magnetic separation of the catalyst after TC adsorption, and the material was successfully applied for TC detection and removal in milk and honey, demonstrating its broad application potential.
Other studies have also synthesized MOF-based materials capable of simultaneously detecting and removing antibiotics. For example, Zn-MOF with 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole-5-carboxylic acid (CBC) as a ligand was used for fluorescence detection and adsorption of OTC [51]. Yang’s work [52] utilized postsynthetic modification (PSM) to expand the functional group range of ZIF-8, creating a core–shell p-type semiconductor@MOF (Eu-CuBi2O4@ZIF-8) via in situ growth and postsynthetic metal exchange. This catalyst showed a low LOD and fast response during TC fluorescence detection and exhibited good adsorption performance. Additionally, the material’s color changed from dark to red upon UV irradiation in the presence of TC, facilitating visual detection. Wang et al. [53] also developed Europium-based MOF materials for simultaneous fluorescence detection and removal of TC, investigating mechanisms such as π-π interactions, electrostatic attraction, and hydrogen bonding. Researchers have also studied Eu-doped Zr-MOFs for TC fluorescence detection [54] and Cd-MOFs for simultaneous fluorescence detection and adsorption of chloramphenicol (CHL) [55].
The porosity and tunability of MOFs have significantly contributed to their application in the treatment of antibiotics. Other materials fall far short of MOFs, e.g., the crystal zeolite with a porous structure is inferior in terms of its adsorption efficiency and detection of antibiotics [77]. Despite these advances, much of the research has focused on tetracyclines (TCs), and there is limited investigation into the simultaneous detection and removal of other antibiotics, such as penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, and macrolides. This is likely due to the unique characteristics of TCs, which are easier to detect and adsorb.

2.1.2. Treatment of Other Organic Contaminants

Malachite green (MG) is a dye commonly used in aquaculture and the fishery industry. However, MG can be reduced to a more toxic compound, leuco-malachite green (LMG), in organisms, posing significant health risks to humans and other species [78,79]. As shown in Figure 5, Bao et al. [15] developed a Eu3+-MOF material by modifying the UiO-66 precursor with red-emissive Eu3+ ions and a blue-emissive ligand through pre- and post-functionalization methods. The Eu3+-MOF demonstrated excellent selectivity and sensitivity for detecting MG and LMG, with limits of detection (LODs) of 34.20 nM and 1.98 nM, respectively, in fluorescence-based assays. Additionally, a paper-based sensor incorporating the Eu3+-MOF was developed, which, when combined with a smartphone, allowed for portable and efficient detection. Due to its high surface area and interactions such as π–π stacking, coordination bonding, and electrostatic interactions, the Eu3+-MOF exhibited excellent adsorption capacity for MG. These materials show great promise for applications in water treatment for food safety and environmental protection. Most dyes are organic compounds with different molecular structures; therefore, it is much easier for MOFs to interact with dye molecules by generating more various chemical bonds compared to other materials, such as activated carbon and clay [80]. However, MOF materials are not advantageous in terms of cost and stability.
2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl phenol (TNP) is a harmful environmental contaminant commonly used in industrial and military explosives [81]. Its toxicity and water solubility pose significant risks to human health. Wang and Yuan [56] developed a dual-functional MOF material made of Zr-Sti, capable of both detecting and removing TNP from aqueous solutions. Zheng and colleagues [57] also synthesized Cd-based MOFs for luminescence-based detection and removal of TNP. The Cd-MOF demonstrated fast, sensitive, and recyclable detection with an LOD of 0.38 μM. To enhance the adsorption capacity, the Cd-MOF was integrated with macroporous melamine foam (MF), resulting in the composite material Cd-MOF@MF, which exhibited an impressive adsorption capacity of 456.16 mg/g for TNP. This material was successfully applied to treat real samples, highlighting its potential for wastewater treatment. In the area of detection or degradation of phenols, many technics with high efficiency and low cost have been developed [82,83]; however, MOFs have unique advantages as multifunctional materials for phenol treatment.
P-arsanilic acid (p-ASA), commonly used as a feed additive, has raised concerns due to its toxicity to aquatic ecosystems and its potential to affect human health. Yang et al. [58] synthesized a novel nitrogen-rich 2D MOF material, Cu+-tpp, which was then combined with ZIF-8 to form a heterostructure, Cu+-tpp@ZIF-8, using a liquid-phase epitaxy method, as depicted in Figure 6. This strategy overcame lattice mismatch issues due to the abundant nitrogen-rich sites. The Cu+-tpp@ZIF-8 material demonstrated excellent performance in the simultaneous fluorescence detection and adsorption of p-ASA, achieving an LOD of 0.4 µg/L and a high adsorption capacity of 303.0 mg/g. The excellent adsorption capacity should result from the synergistic effect of coordination interactions, hydrogen bonding, and π-π interactions.
Diclofenac, a commonly utilized non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), may exert detrimental long-term impacts on both the environment and human health when released into the ecosystem [84,85]. Li and Du [59] developed a MOF-based material, poly(DES)@MOF, using surface imprinting. In this material, MOF-199, diclofenac, and a deep eutectic solvent (DES) act as the support, template, and functional monomer, respectively (Figure 7). The adsorption capacity for diclofenac, determined using UV spectrophotometry, is 19.39 mg/g, with an excellent recovery rate. This work broadens the application of MOF-based materials for pollutant detection and removal in wastewater.
Pesticides, widely used in agriculture to control diseases, weeds, and pests, have become a major environmental concern due to their persistence and potential toxicity. Every year, approximately 1–2.5 million tons of pesticides are used globally, and many end up in the environment, threatening ecosystems and human health [61]. Yang and colleagues [37] developed two MOF materials, [Zn(tpt)2·2H2O]n(Zn1) and [Zn2(tpt)2(bdc)]n(Zn2), for the simultaneous detection and removal of the pesticide thiophanate-methyl (TM) from water. After modification, Zn2 was combined with sodium alginate (SA) to form ZIF-8-on-Zn2@SA, which was applied for fluorescence detection of TM in vegetables and fruits, achieving an LOD of 0.14 μM. ZIF-8-on-Zn2@SA also exhibited an excellent adsorption capacity (161.8 mg/g) for carbendazim, a metabolite of TM. In another study, Yang’s group [37] synthesized {[Cd(tbia)⋅H2O]⋅2H2O}n-alginate-Ca2+-polyacrylic acid (kgd-M1@ACPs) for naked-eye detection with an LOD of 0.09 µM and an adsorption capacity of 83.3 mg/g for the pesticide 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline. Yang et al. [61] also developed Zn2@ZIF-8@SA for the simultaneous fluorescence detection and removal of pesticides. This material exhibited low LODs of 0.08 µM for quinclorac (QNC), 0.09 µM for 2,6-dichloro-4-nitroaniline (DCN), and 0.37 µM for thiabendazole (TBZ). The adsorption capacity for QNC was 142.1 mg/g. Furthermore, a sensor test box was created for visual detection of pesticide residues on farm products. Similar to the antibiotics, most pesticides are organic molecules, which will facilitate treatment by MOFs. The tenability of MOFs including the pore size and the functional groups on the framework will greatly contribute to the application of MOF materials in monitoring and eliminating pesticides.

2.2. Inorganics

2.2.1. Heavy Metal Ion Treatment

The presence of heavy metals in wastewater, such as copper, zinc, nickel, mercury, lead, cadmium, and chromium, poses significant risks to both ecosystems and human health. These metals are non-biodegradable and can accumulate in organisms, leading to serious health problems [86,87,88]. Therefore, the treatment of heavy metal ions in wastewater has become a critical area of research.
Mercury, a neurotoxic trace metal, poses significant environmental and human health risks due to its accumulation and biomagnification in the food chain [89]. It can cause reproductive issues, neurological disorders, and developmental disabilities. Consequently, extensive efforts have been dedicated to address mercury pollution. You et al. [62] synthesized a hierarchical MOF-on-MOF hybrid by embedding gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) into ZIF-8, which was then applied for the simultaneous detection and adsorption of Hg2+. The AuNCs, confined within the ZIF-8 layer, triggered aggregation-induced emission, enhancing fluorescence upon Hg2+ interaction. The hybrid material, UiO-66-NH2@AuNCs/ZIF-8, demonstrated an LOD of 0.42 ppb and an adsorption capacity of 129.9 mg/g, which were comparable to that of most reported adsorbents for Hg2+. It was found that the complexation between Hg2+ and N-containing groups in ZIF-8 or UiO-66-NH2 and the Hg2+-Au+ interaction contributed to the super adsorption capability. This study provided an effective MOF-based material for both the detection and removal of mercury. Yang and colleagues [63] developed a MOF-based material containing amino groups for the simultaneous detection and adsorption of Hg2+. The charge transfer emission of the material was effectively quenched in the presence of Hg2+, with a low LOD of 0.87 μM. The material also exhibited excellent adsorption, removing 97% of Hg2+ within 2 h from a 0.1 M solution.
A more convenient naked-eye detector for Hg2+ was developed by Safaei et al. [64] using thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole, a ligand with a strong affinity for mercury. This ligand was incorporated into Zn2(BDC)2(TzTz)2, which exhibited a fluorescence color change from light cream to fluorescent yellow within 3 min upon Hg2+ adsorption. The material showed an impressive adsorption capacity of 1428 mg/g for Hg2+, with excellent selectivity and stability. Similarly, El-Sewify et al. [65] designed thioketone-functionalized Al-MOFs (TAM) for colorimetric detection and adsorption of Hg2+, where Hg2+ binding with TAM caused a color shift from yellow to green. The LOD was calculated to be 0.8 ppb, and the TAM showed a good adsorption capacity of 1110 mg/g for Hg2+.
Hexavalent chromium (Cr2O72−) is widely used in industries such as printing, dyeing, steel manufacturing, and more. However, even low concentrations of Cr2O72− are carcinogenic and teratogenic, raising concerns about its environmental pollution [90,91]. Wang et al. [56] developed a Zr-based MOF, Zr-Sti, to simultaneously detect and remove Cr2O72−. The material exhibited a fluorescence resonance energy transfer mechanism, achieving an LOD of 0.73 μM (159 ppb) for Cr2O72− and an adsorption capacity of 43.38 mg/g resulting from the hydrogen bonds. Zr-Sti also showed effectiveness in removing 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl phenol.
Yoo et al. [66] encapsulated coumarin and resorufin dye molecules into MOF-801, forming Dyes⊂MOF-801, which was used for the ratiometric fluorescence detection and removal of Cr2O72−, as shown in Figure 8. The dual-emission property of this material allowed for the detection of Cr2O72− at 0.03 mM, even in the presence of 260 times higher concentrations of interfering ions. Dyes⊂MOF-801 also showed a high adsorption capacity of 83 mg/g for Cr2O72− within 3 min.
Kataria’s group [68] synthesized a highly stable Zn-based MOF (PUC-5) using 1-(3-aminopropyl)imidazole and trimesic acid. PUC-5 was used to detect and remove Fe2+, Pb2+, and V5+ from water. The interaction between these metal contaminants and the -C=O groups on PUC-5 caused a significant hyperchromic shift in the absorption peaks. The LODs for Pb2+, Fe2+, and V5+ were 0.113, 0.129, and 0.246 µM, respectively. PUC-5 showed excellent performance in real water samples, including seawater, groundwater, and tap water. The material also exhibited a high adsorption capacity of 208.7 mg/g for Fe2+, 192.6 mg/g for Pb2+, and 203.6 mg/g for V5+.
Wang’s group [69] synthesized amino-functionalized MIL-101(Fe) using a simple one-step method. In this system, the organic linkers with amino groups were only needed for fluorescence emission. Because of the chelation between the metal ions and the amine groups, the material exhibited excellent detection capabilities for Fe3+, Cu2+, and Pb2+ ions, with LODs of 1.8, 1.6, and 5.2 μM, respectively, and adsorption capacities of 3.5, 0.9, and 1.1 mM/g. The adsorption might result from the coordination between the C=O unit and metal ions. Similar performance was observed for MIL-53-NH2(Al), MIL-101-NH2(Cr), MOF-5-NH2(Zn), and UiO-66-NH2(Zr).
While certain heavy metal ions, such as Fe3+, Cu2+, and Zn2+, are essential for the human body, imbalances (either excess or deficiency) can lead to disease [92]. Therefore, it is important to develop techniques for the detection and removal of these ions. Wen et al. [67] synthesized a 2D layered MOF (HSB-W15) combining 5-aminoisophthalic acid and 1,2-bis(4′-pyridylmethylamino)-ethane ligands. Then, HSB-W15-NS was observed by means of instant in situ exfoliation. Due to the specific structure of the ultrathin nanosheets and the abundant active sites on the surface, HSB-W15-NS was proven to be an excellent fluorescent sensor for detecting Fe3+ with an LOD of 0.837μM. In addition, Fe3+ could be selectively captured with a high adsorption capacity (250.81 mg/g) within 5 min. It was found that the free carbonyl groups, amino, and pyridyln contributed to the high adsorption capacity.
Other heavy metal ions, such as As5+ and Cd2+, have also been studied for simultaneous detection and adsorption. Cd2+ was treated using Fe3O4/MOF/L-cysteine for fluorescent detection with an LOD of 0.94 ng/mL and an adsorption capacity of 248.24 mg/g [70]. As5+ was detected and adsorbed by an amino-functionalized Fe-based MOF, with an LOD of 4.2 ppb and a maximum adsorption capacity of 125 mg/g [71].
As we all know, zeolites including natural, modified, and synthetic zeolites are also ideal materials for the treatment of heavy metal ion pollution [93]. The adsorption of heavy metal ions by zeolite through sorption and ion exchange depends on the charge density and hydrated ion diameters [94]. In addition, in terms of cost, zeolites have a big advantage. However, for the detection of heavy metal ions, MOFs have an absolute advantage.

2.2.2. Inorganic Anion Treatment

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for all life forms, playing a key role in biochemical processes. However, phosphorus pollution, often leading to eutrophication and algal blooms in aquatic ecosystems, threatens the environment and human health [95,96]. Therefore, addressing phosphorus pollution is critical. Wang’s group [72] synthesized a luminescent, rod-like terbium-based MOF (Tb-BTC) via a hydrothermal method for phosphorus detection and adsorption. Tb-BTC exhibited a fluorescence quenching effect, achieving an LOD of 2.97 μM, and a maximum adsorption capacity of 222.2 mg/g resulting from the electrostatic attraction. To improve operability and recoverability, Tb-BTC was integrated onto polyacrylonitrile nanofibers to form a nanofibrous membrane for phosphorus treatment. However, the performance decreased slightly compared to pure Tb-BTC.
Fluoride (F) plays a crucial role in human health by contributing to fluorapatite formation in bones and teeth [97]. However, fluoride intake can be toxic when its concentration is higher than 0.05 mg/Kg/day. Li et al. [73] synthesized a luminescent MOF made of In(tcpp) with the chromophore ligand 2,3,5,6-tetrakis(4-carboxyphenyl)pyrazine (H4tcpp). As depicted in Figure 9, in(tcpp) served as a “switchable” sensor, exhibiting turn-on and turn-off photoluminescence signals when complexed with F and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), with LODs of 1.3 mg/L for F and 19 mg/L for PFOA. In(tcpp) also demonstrated excellent adsorption capacities of 36.7 mg/g for F and 980.0 mg/g for PFOA. The bridging -OH between In(tcpp) and F, the N in the component, and the acid–base interaction between the PFOA and In(tcpp) contributed to the excellent adsorption.
Radioactive iodine isotopes (129I and 131I), produced during nuclear energy generation, are highly toxic to the environment and human health [98]. Therefore, developing treatment methods for iodine pollution is very important for protecting the environment and human health. Zhang et al. [74] developed a multifunctional material by decorating silver ions (Ag+) onto nano-MOF UiO-66-(COOH)2 for the simultaneous detection and removal of iodide (I) from aqueous solutions. By connecting with the carboxylate groups, Ag+ was incorporated onto UiO-66-(COOH)2, enhancing the fluorescence of the MOF. However, in the solution containing I, Ag+ on UiO-66-(COOH)2 reacted with I, producing AgI. Therefore, the fluorescent signal decreased and I transformed into precipitate AgI simultaneously. The LOD was calculated to be 0.58 ppm and the adsorption capacity was 235.5 mg/g.
The simultaneous detection and removal of contaminants is an effective method for wastewater treatment. However, several challenges need to be addressed. (1) After adsorbing contaminants such as antibiotics, MOFs need to be regenerated (i.e., desorbed) for reuse. This process often requires large amounts of solvents or water, increasing both costs and the need for MOFs to maintain high stability. (2) MOFs can be sensitive to factors such as pH, temperature, and solvent exposure, which can affect their stability and durability. Therefore, enhancing the stability of MOFs is essential. (3) Scaling up the production of MOFs and integrating them into industrial-scale processes presents significant challenges.

3. Simultaneous Detection and Degradation of Contaminants

MOF materials are known for their porous structures, which enable the effective adsorption for contaminants. This property makes them suitable for a wide range of applications, such as catalysis, water purification, and gas separation [20,99]. When designing multifunctional MOF-based materials, the ability to adsorb contaminants is often prioritized [21,36]. Most studies on multifunctional MOF materials focus on this adsorption capacity, with additional functions such as photocatalysis, Fenton-like reactions, and other catalytic activities being integrated [100,101,102]. As a result, many MOF materials combine both degradation and sensing abilities, as shown in Table 2. However, challenges remain in optimizing the components and minimizing interference, highlighting the need for innovative materials to enhance catalyst performance [36].

3.1. Antibiotics

Due to their widespread use and the resulting environmental pollution, antibiotics are commonly targeted as contaminants [103,104]. In a study by Li et al. [21], CaO2-loaded Cu-MOF nanosheets (CaO2@Cu-MOF NSs) were developed for the simultaneous detection and degradation of tetracycline (TC). As shown in Figure 10, TC in solution was adsorbed onto CDNA@Fe3O4 NPs. The signal probes were dissociated by acid, releasing Ca2+, Cu2+, and H2O2. The fluorescence of calcein was activated by Ca2+, enabling TC detection. Simultaneously, Cu2+ and H2O2 facilitated Cu2+/Cu+ cycle-mediated Fenton-like oxidation to degrade TC. The system achieved a low LOD of 11.8 fg/mL, with 95% of the 40 mg/L TC degraded within 60 min. Their study shows great promise for practical applications.
Some MOF materials also exhibit photocatalytic activity; therefore, some researchers have constructed MOF-based heterojunctions for photodegradating contaminants. For example, Han’s group [36] combined In2S3 with Zr-MOF (PCN-224) to create a Z-scheme heterojunction (In2S3@PCN-224) for TC detection and photodegradation. When TC interacted with the In2S3@PCN-224 sensor, the fluorescence intensity decreased due to strong interactions between TC and the porphyrin ligands. The LOD for TC was 55 nM. Due to the successful construction of the heterojunction, a 25 mg/L TC solution was treated with a degradation rate of approximately 80%, owing to both adsorption and photodegradation effects. This work extends the concept of the “integration of diagnosis and treatment” in environmental management.
Our group have never tried to detect and degrade antibiotics simultaneously using modified zeolites [4]. Compared to zeolite materials, the functional variety of MOFs is an absolute advantage, because the modification of functional groups or nanoparticles is so limited. However, in terms of cost and stability, zeolite-based materials are much better; therefore, the improvement in stability and the reduction in cost are very important factors limiting the application of MOFs in at a large scale.

3.2. Phenolic Compounds

Phenolic compounds, such as phenols, chlorophenols, and derivatives, are commonly found in wastewater from industries like phenolic resin production, plastic manufacturing, petroleum refining, dye and textile industries, and agrochemical production [105,106]. These compounds are highly toxic and persistent in the environment, necessitating effective treatment before wastewater is released.
For decades, the integration of chemo- and enzyme catalysis in wastewater treatment has shown significant promise but also presents certain challenges [100,101]. Yin and coworkers [100] immobilized laccase (Lac) onto Cu2O@MOF through covalent linkage to form Cu2O@NMOF-Lac, which was used for the simultaneous detection and degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP). In the UV colorimetric detection system, Cu2O@NMOF-Lac catalyzed the reaction between 2,4-DCP and 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AAP), producing a red dye. The LOD was 0.29 µM. In degradation experiments, hydroxyl radicals from H2O2 decomposition were found to be the primary active species, achieving an 82.35% degradation rate of 2,4-DCP (20 mg/L) in 2 h. Their work provides a platform combining enzymes and Cu2O@MOF for treating 2,4-DCP, although the authors did not investigate the adsorption capacity of the catalyst for 2,4-DCP.
Caffeic acid (CA), a natural polyphenol, is a common contaminant in wastewater from wine and olive oil production. CA concentrations often exceed the allowable limit of 0.5 mg/L [107,108]. Although CA has health benefits, its high concentration can harm bacteria, plants, and aquatic organisms. Therefore, CA pollution warrants attention. In the work by Wang and Chen [100], a magnetic luminescent nanozyme (Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF) was developed for the simultaneous detection and degradation of CA, as shown in Figure 11. In the presence of CA, the fluorescence of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF decreased significantly due to energy competition absorption, nucleophilic reactions, and photo-induced electron transfer. The system achieved a low LOD of 18.9 nM, with a wide linear detection range from 50 nM to 500 μM. The modification of Fe3O4 and CeO2 imparted peroxidase activity to Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF, enabling CA degradation via free radicals generated from H2O2 catalysis.

3.3. Other Contaminants

Ibuprofen (IBP), a widely used pharmaceutical, has been detected in numerous water bodies, raising concerns about its potential environmental impact [109,110]. To address this issue, various strategies have been developed. Garg et al. [111] synthesized a hybrid material by combining ZnO and NH2-MIL-125(Ti), which was used for the simultaneous detection and degradation of ibuprofen. In the presence of IBP, the absorbance of the hybrid material greatly increased during fluorescence measurements due to their interaction. The LOD reached 0.15 μM within a linear range of 0 to 0.75 μM. In addition, the hybrid material demonstrated excellent photocatalytic activity for degrading IBP in real water samples, achieving a degradation efficiency of 88.9% at pH 5.7. It showed great potential as a multifunctional tool for detecting and treating IBP in wastewater.
The release of human and livestock waste, pharmaceuticals, and agricultural chemicals contributes to the production of estrogens, including 17β-estradiol (E2), which is commonly found in aquatic environments [112]. Even at concentrations as low as 1 ng/L, E2 can disrupt the endocrine systems of aquatic organisms [113]. Wang and Chen [102] developed an artificial nanozyme, Tb-OBBA-Hemin, for the simultaneous detection and degradation of E2 and its derivatives. This nanozyme consists of a luminescent Tb3+ ion, a light-harvesting ligand, and a catalytic coenzyme (hemin). In fluorescent detection, the LOD for E2 was 50 pM. The degradation rate of E2 reached 88% within 60 min, facilitated by the active ·OH and high-valent iron-oxo species. Tb-OBBA-Hemin holds promise as a substitute for the traditional combination of natural enzymes and chromogenic substrates in environmental applications.
Table 2. Summary of MOFs for simultaneous detection and degradation of contaminants.
Table 2. Summary of MOFs for simultaneous detection and degradation of contaminants.
CatalystContaminantDetectionAdsorption CapacityDegradationYearRef.
MethodLODMethodRate
CaO2@Cu-MOFTCFluorescent11.8 fg/mL-Fenton-like95% per 60 min2024[21]
In2S3@PCN-224TCFluorescent55 nM60%Photocatalysis20%2023[36]
Cu2O@NMOF-Lac2,4-dichlorophenolUV colorimetric0.29 µM-Peroxidase-like 82%2023[100]
Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOFCaffeic acidFluorescent18.9 nM-Peroxidase-like95%2024[101]
ZnO/NH2-MIL-125 (Ti)IbuprofenFluorescent0.15 μM~25%Photocatalytic88.9%2024[111]
Tb-OBBA-Hemin17β-estradiolFluorescent50 pM-Peroxidase-like88%2020[102]
The simultaneous detection and degradation of contaminants is an ideal method for wastewater treatment. Unlike simultaneous detection and removal, which requires desorption of contaminants (particularly organic ones), the combination of detection and degradation (including adsorption and catalytic reactions) is more complex due to the need to integrate multiple functions into a single system. This complexity may explain why there are fewer studies on simultaneous detection and degradation compared to those focusing on detection and adsorption. Future research should focus on improving the stability and reactivity of MOFs, developing scalable and cost-effective synthesis methods, and understanding the environmental impacts of MOFs, along with sustainable disposal strategies.

4. One Stone, Two Birds

Wastewater contains a variety of contaminants, both organic and inorganic, which differ in chemical properties, solubility, and toxicity [114,115]. This diversity makes it challenging to remove all contaminants using a single material. Therefore, effective treatment requires the development of materials with multiple functionalities. To address this, researchers are focusing on creating multifunctional materials capable of targeting multiple contaminants simultaneously or sequentially, akin to the saying “killing two birds with one stone”.

4.1. Different Functions for Different Contaminants

The development of MOF-based multifunctional materials tailored for different contaminants offers significant potential for addressing environmental challenges [40,116,117]. With their highly porous structures, large surface areas, and tunable chemical properties, MOFs are excellent candidates for a variety of applications, including adsorption, separation, catalysis, and sensing. When treating wastewater with diverse contaminants, various MOF functions are often employed, as shown in Table 3.
Kataria et al. [116] fabricated a novel Zn-MOF@MCHS composite using an in situ method, combining mesoporous carbon hollow spheres (MCHS) and MOF-based fluorescent nanocomposites. This material was used for detecting 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP) and Cu2+ and for the adsorption removal of Cu2+. The high surface area and unique structure of Zn-MOF@MCHS enhanced energy or charge transfer, resulting in an LOD of 0.301 µM for TNP and 0.368 µM for Cu2+. The adsorption capacity for Cu2+ reached 523.56 mg/g, with a removal efficiency of 99%.
When obtaining freshwater by means of solar evaporation with wastewater, treatment of the accumulated contaminants in the bulk water is an important issue. Fan et al. [40] developed Ni-MOF nanorods from waste poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) for the simultaneous solar evaporation and photodegradation of antibiotics, as shown in Figure 12. These nanorods demonstrated excellent light absorption, high photothermal conversion, and a low vaporization enthalpy, achieving an evaporation rate of 2.25 kg/m2/h. Additionally, in peroxymonosulfate activation, the system achieved a 91% removal efficiency for tetracycline, driven by local heat and Ni-sites in the Ni-MOF. This approach offers a sustainable method for freshwater production and organic pollutant degradation.
The simultaneous detection of organic pollutants and removal of inorganic pollutants is a common focus in MOF-based multifunctional material research. For instance, Shahid’s group [118] developed a Co-MOF@CNT composite which enabled the simultaneous detection of Cr6+ and the removal of organic dyes. The system showed an impressive LOD of 0.125 μM for Cr6+ with excellent selectivity. The adsorption capacities for methylene blue and methyl orange were 98% and 72%, respectively.
Eu3+-based cationic MOFs, such as the one developed by Li et al. [117], exhibit excellent sensing performance for antibiotics like nitrofurantoin and nitrofurazone, with low LODs of 1.33 μM and 2.80 μM, respectively. Additionally, Eu-CMOF demonstrated a high adsorption capacity of 1.1 g/g for MnO4 due to its cationic framework and decentralized positive charges.
Another example includes TMU-57, a MOF material functionalized with thiophene-urea groups, designed for detecting nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) and adsorbing Hg2+ [119]. Through hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl group of TNP and the urea functionality of TMU-57, a low LOD of 2 ppb was achieved for TNP detection. This demonstrates the versatility of multifunctional MOFs in addressing multiple applications. Similarly, Wang’s group [120] also developed MOFL-TpBD for the simultaneous fluorescence detection of TNP and lead adsorption, further illustrating the versatility of MOF-based materials.
In the realm of biomimetic detection, Huang and colleagues [121] developed an MOF-based nanozyme (CA-Cu) with laccase- and catecholase-like activities. The active site, formed by the coordination between nitrogen and copper, enabled high-performance dopamine detection with an LOD of 2.23 μM and efficient degradation of chlorophenol and diphenol (80% and 50%, respectively, within 8 h). Their work highlights the potential of MOF-based nanozymes for multifunctional applications in contaminant detection and degradation.
MOFs can also serve as pH sensors. For instance, Wang and Li [122] developed a luminescent Zr-MOF (Zr-BBI) that exhibited a sensitive fluorescence response to pH changes between 4.6 and 7.12. Zr-BBI also demonstrated excellent performance in detecting Cr2O72− with a low LOD of 0.69 μM, and it could reduce Cr6+ to Cr3+ under visible light, enhancing its photocatalytic activity.
Table 3. One MOF with different functions for different contaminants.
Table 3. One MOF with different functions for different contaminants.
CatalystRemovalDetectionDegradationOther FunctionYearRef.
ContaminantAdsorption Capacity and Removal RateContaminantMethod and LODContaminantMethod and Rate
Zn-MOF@MCHSCu2+523.56 mg/g, 99%2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP), and Cu2+Fluorescent, 0.301 and 0.368 µM---2025[116]
Ni-MOF----TCPeroxymonosulfate, 91%Interfacial
solar evaporation (2.25 kg/m2/h)
2023[40]
Co-MOF@CNTMethylene blue and Methyl orange98% and 72%Cr6+Fluorescent, 0.125 μM---2022[118]
TMU-57Hg2+570 mg/g2,4,6-trinitrophenolFluorescent, 2 ppb---2022[119]
MOFL-TpBDPb2+21.74 mg/g2,4,6-trinitrophenol0.32
μg/L
---2021[120]
Eu-CMOFMnO41.1 g/gNitrofurantoin and NitrofurazoneFluorescent, 1.33 and 2.80 μM---2022[117]
CA-Cu--DopamineUV colorimetric, 2.23 μMchlorophenol and diphenolLaccase-like, 80% and 50%-2022[121]
Zr-BBI----Reducing Cr2O72− to Cr3+Photocatalysis, k = 0.073 min−1pH sensor (pH 4.6–7.12)2021[122]
In summary, the development of MOF-based multifunctional materials, tailored to address various contaminants, represents a promising direction for environmental remediation. By optimizing the design and properties of these materials, researchers are creating effective, reusable, and environmentally friendly solutions for wastewater treatment and pollutant detection. In addition, the tunability of MOF materials make them more idealized materials than biomass, activated carbon, and zeolite materials.

4.2. One Function for Different Contaminants

4.2.1. Removal of Various Contaminants

MOFs are highly effective materials for contaminant adsorption in aquatic environments due to their extremely high surface areas, which provide abundant adsorption sites, and their tunable pore sizes, which allow for the selective targeting of different contaminants [3,16,20]. The diverse functionalities of MOFs further enhance their capacity to adsorb a wide range of pollutants. As a result, MOFs have been widely studied for removing various contaminants from water, as shown in Table 4.
Water contamination is a serious environmental issue, with diverse sources of pollution in wastewater [123,124]. Thus, developing efficient materials for wastewater treatment is essential. Pardo and Armentano [16] developed a novel, water-stable, multivariate (MTV) MOF with oxamide-based metalloligands. This MOF features hexagonal channels decorated with -CH2OH and -CH2CH2SCH3 groups, enabling it to effectively remove both organic contaminants (e.g., dyes) and inorganic contaminants (e.g., Pb2+, Tl+, and Hg2+). Additionally, MTV-MOF exhibited excellent reusability, marking the first report of an MOF material that can remove both organic and inorganic contaminants from water, thus demonstrating broad application potential for wastewater treatment.
Following the above study, many researchers have focused on the simultaneous removal of both organic and inorganic contaminants. For example, Bhat and colleagues [125] synthesized a Zr-based MOF for removing the organic contaminant methylene blue and the inorganic contaminants lead and cadmium ions from wastewater. Zr-MOF’s zeta potential of −7.7 mV at a neutral pH facilitated strong interactions with the adsorbates. Singh et al. [126] fabricated a CaFu MOF, which was used for the simultaneous adsorption of the pesticide imidacloprid and Cd2+ ions from an aqueous ecosystem.
Several researchers have also combined MOFs with other materials to enhance their ability to simultaneously remove both organic and inorganic contaminants. For example, Li and coworkers [127] modified carboxymethylated filter paper (CMFP) by means of layer-by-layer deposition of NH2-Cu-BDC, forming Cu-MOFs/CMFP. This composite material efficiently captured dyes and metal ions (Pb2+ and Cd2+), with a removal efficiency of nearly 90% when 30 layers of Cu-MOFs/CMFP were used. The study introduced a novel approach for designing MOF-based materials capable of removing both organic and inorganic contaminants simultaneously. Similarly, porous ZnO microspheres were combined with Zn-MOF-74 to create ZnO-NP@Zn-MOF-74, which exhibited excellent adsorption performance for Cu2+ and tetracycline (TC), achieving 106.27 mg/g for Cu and 137.17 mg/g for TC due to interactions like π-π stacking, surface complexation, electrostatic interactions, and ion exchange [17]. Composites of ZIF-8 MOFs and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were developed for removing phosphate and emerging organic contaminants (EOCs), such as acetaminophen (AAP) and triclosan (TCS) [128]. The composites exhibited a maximum adsorption capacity of 188.5 mg/g for phosphate, likely due to Zn-O-P interactions and hydrogen bonding. However, the presence of EOCs hindered phosphate adsorption.
Some MOF-based materials have also been applied to remove different organic contaminants simultaneously. For instance, C@FeO nanopillars were combined with a 2D MOF to create 2D-MOF@C@FeO, which was used for the simultaneous removal of microplastics (MP) and dissolved contaminants like methylene blue (MB), as shown in Figure 13 [129]. 2D-MOF@C@FeO exhibited a high surface area, magnetic properties, and abundant active sites, achieving a 100% removal rate for MP alone and a 90% removal rate for both MP and MB after six adsorption cycles. Similarly, Rafiee et al. [30] developed a Zn-based MOF hybridized with a covalent organic framework (COF), forming MOF-5/COF(M5C), which was used for the simultaneous removal of rhodamine B (RB) and auramine O (AO) cationic dyes. The composite exhibited adsorption capacities of 17.95 and 16.18 mg/g for AO and RB dyes, respectively, due to hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, electrostatic interactions, and Lewis acid–base interactions. Different antibiotics [9] and dyes [15] were also studied.
MOFs are also effective for removing various inorganic contaminants simultaneously. Yang and colleagues [130] synthesized thiol-functionalized defective Zr-MSA-DMSA by mixing mercaptosuccinic acid and 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid which was used to remove metal ions from wastewater. The maximum adsorption capacities for Pb2+, Hg2+, and Cd2+ were 715.2, 862.7, and 450.5 mg/g, respectively. The unsaturated adsorption sites and oxygen vacancies on Zr-MOF contributed to its ability to adsorb heavy metal ions. Further investigation revealed that electrostatic attraction, abundant defective sites, and coordination between oxygen and sulfur atoms played key roles in metal ion adsorption. In another study, Sridhar et al. [77] synthesized mixed-matrix composites of NH2-MIL-101-Fe and MOF-808-EDTA, which were applied for the removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater. The MOF-808-EDTA spheres exhibited the best performance, with adsorption capacities of 272.7, 151.29, and 125.9 mg/g for Hg2+, As3+, and Mn2+, respectively, at a pH of 5–5.5. Maspoch and colleagues [131] developed composite microbeads of a MOF (UiO-66 or UiO-66-(SH)2) and CeO2 via continuous-flow spray-drying. These composites were used to simultaneously remove multiple metal ions, including As3+, As5+, Hg2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Cr3+, Cr6+, and Cu2+. The materials demonstrated high stability during continuous-flow column treatment, and the adsorbents could be regenerated with a gentle acidic treatment.
Table 4. Summary of one MOF for removal of different contaminants.
Table 4. Summary of one MOF for removal of different contaminants.
CatalystRemoval Species (Adsorption Capacity, Time for Equilibrium)YearRef.
MTV-MOFHg2+, Pb2+, and Tl+; Pyronin Y, Auramine O, brilliant green, and methylene blue, 0–48 h2019[16]
Zr-MOFMethylene blue (169 mg/g)
Lead ions (100 mg/g)
Cadmium ions (37 mg/g)
2021[125]
CaFu MOFImidacloprid (467.23 mg/g, 150 min)
Cd2+ ions (781.2 mg/g, 40 min)
2021[126]
Cu-MOFs/CMFPMethylene blue, malachite green, and rhodamine B;
Pb2+ and Cd2+
2021[132]
ZnO-NP@Zn-MOF-74Cu (106.27 mg/g, 2 h)
Tetracycline (137.17 mg/g, 2 h)
2021[17]
ZIF8/MWCNTPhosphate (188.5 mg/g, 12 h)
Acetaminophen (0.51 mol/g, 12 h)
Triclosan (0.35 mol/g, 12 h)
2021[128]
2D-MOF@C@FeOMicroplastic (100% removal, 60 min)
Methylene blue (100% removal, 60 min)
2023[129]
MOF-5/COFAuramine O (17.95 mg/g, 10 min)
RhodamineB (16.18 mg/g, 10 min)
2020[30]
apt-NiCoFe-MOF-74TC (97.4 mg/g)2024[9]
OTC (105.2 mg/g, 10 min)
CTC (115.6 mg/g, 10 min)
DOX (114.7 mg/g, 10 min)
Eu3+-MOFMalachite green (97.64%, 120 min),2024[15]
Leuco-malachite green
Zr-MOFPb2+ (715.2 mg/g, 30 min)
Hg2+ (862.7 mg/g, 30 min)
Cd2+ (450.5 mg/g, 30 min)
2024[130]
NH2-MIL-101-Fe, and MOF-808-EDTAHg2+(272.7 mg/g)
As3+ (151.29 mg/g)
Mn2+ (125.9 mg/g)
2024[77]
CeO2@UiO-66As3+, As5+, Cd2+, Cr3+, Cr6+, Cu2+, Pb2+, and Hg2+2020[131]
MOFs offer a promising solution for the simultaneous removal of multiple heavy metal ions from wastewater due to their selective adsorption, high capacity and efficiency, tunable structures, and environmental compatibility. These properties make MOFs an attractive option for addressing the challenges of mixed heavy metal contamination in wastewater, contributing to environmental protection and sustainable development. As many studies focus on the adsorption of multiple heavy metals, further discussion on this topic is beyond the scope of this review.

4.2.2. Detection of Different Contaminants

Simultaneous detection of multiple contaminants in wastewater is crucial for effective environmental monitoring and pollution control [38,50]. Traditional sensing methods often require multiple sensors or complex analytical equipment, which can be time-consuming and costly [20]. However, MOF-based sensors offer a promising alternative by integrating multiple detection functionalities within a single material. Researchers are focused on enhancing the performance of MOF-based sensors in various aspects, including ease of fabrication, high sensitivity and selectivity, versatility, tunability, and environmental compatibility. A summary of MOFs used for the detection of different contaminants in recent years is shown in Table 5.
Insecticides are widely used in agriculture, forestry, and urban pest control to manage pests and protect crops [133]. However, their widespread use has led to significant environmental pollution [39,134]. Developing efficient insecticide detection methods is therefore essential for environmental protection. Zhou’s group [38] used a template method to synthesize Cu/Co-MOF with a hollow structure, which, when combined with a graphite-like carbon nitride nanosheet (g-C3N4) and luminol, formed a dual-signal luminescent sensor for the simultaneous detection of the insecticides malathion and acetamiprid. The aptamers for malathion and acetamiprid were loaded onto Cu/Co-MOF and AuNPs/g-C3N4, respectively. The hollow structure of Cu/Co-MOF significantly reduced electron mass transfer resistance, enhancing the material’s conductivity. The sensor demonstrated a linear range of 0.1 μM to 0.1 pM, with LODs of 0.015 pM for malathion and 0.018 pM for acetamiprid. In another study [39], the same group synthesized a Ce(III, IV)-MOF composite with hionine (Thi) and ferrocene (Fc) probes which was used to simultaneously detect pesticides like malathion and chlorpyrifos.
Catechol (CC) and hydroquinone (HQ) are common phenolic compounds used in various industries. Their environmental pollution has raised significant concerns [135,136]. Huang et al. [50] prepared a composite of Ce-MOF and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), followed by post-treatment with NaOH/H2O2. The Ce-MOF’s central atom, which has two valences, along with the electron-conducting CNTs, enabled the sensor to effectively discriminate between CC and HQ. The sensor exhibited excellent performance with LODs of 3.5 μM for CC and 5.3 μM for HQ. Similarly, Zheng et al. [137] synthesized a CoNi-MOF and graphene oxide (GO) composite for the electrochemical detection of CC and HQ. The sensor demonstrated a wide linear range (0.1–100 μM), LODs of 0.04 and 0.03 μM for HQ and CC, respectively, and an excellent anti-interference ability.
Heavy metal contamination in wastewater poses significant risks to ecosystems and human health. Consequently, many MOF-based materials have been developed for the simultaneous detection of heavy metal ions. For example, Hou’s group [138] synthesized a CoZn-MOF composite with conductive carbon paper and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) to create a sensing electrode (CP-rGO-CoZn-MOF) for the simultaneous detection of Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions. The sensor achieved LODs of 0.565 nM for Cd2+ and 0.588 nM for Pb2+. Similarly, Ha et al. [139] fabricated an Yb-MOF composite, which was drop-cast onto a glassy carbon electrode to detect Cd2+ and Pb2+ ions with LODs of 3.0 ppb and 1.6 ppb, respectively. Additionally, Cu-MOF-based electrodes have been used to detect Tl+ and Hg2+ ions in electrochemical applications [140].
Table 5. Summary of MOFs for detection of different contaminants.
Table 5. Summary of MOFs for detection of different contaminants.
CatalystDetection MethodDetection Species (LOD)YearRef.
Cu/Co-MOFElectrochemicalMalathion (0.015 pM)
Acetamiprid (0.018 pM)
2021[38]
Ce(III, IV)-MOFElectroluminescenceMalathion (0.038 pM)
Chlorpyrifos (0.045 pM)
2022[39]
Ce-MOF/CNTsElectrochemicalCatechol (3.5 μM)
Hydroquinone (5.3 μM)
2021[50]
CoNi-MOF/GOElectrochemicalCatechol (0.03 μM)
Hydroquinone (0.05 μM)
2023[137]
CP-rGO-CoZn-MOFElectrochemicalCd2+ (0.565 nM)
Pb2+ (0.588 nM)
2022[138]
Yb-MOFElectrochemicalCd2+ (3.0 ppb)
Pb2+ (1.6 ppb)
2021[139]
Cu-MOFElectrochemicalTl+ (0.11 ppb)
Hg2+ (0.17 ppb)
2020[140]
In most studies on simultaneous detection using MOFs, the electrochemical method has been the focus, primarily due to its high sensitivity compared to other detection methods. This is particularly advantageous when MOFs are incorporated into electrodes; however, the trace amounts on the electrode surface limit adsorption and other functions to some extent. While other detection methods exist, the electrochemical approach remains the most commonly used for MOF-based sensors in contaminant detection due to its sensitivity and efficiency.

5. Conclusions, Outlooks, and Recommendations

5.1. Conclusions

MOFs have demonstrated significant potential in wastewater treatment because of their high porosity and specific adsorption sites which enable efficient removal of a wide range of contaminants, including both organic and inorganic pollutants. Moreover, MOFs can be functionalized with specific ligands or metal ions to enhance their selectivity for target contaminants, allowing for the targeted removal of pollutants and reducing the need for extensive and costly treatment processes.
The tunable properties of MOFs make them ideal candidates for sensor development. By incorporating specific metal ions or ligands, MOF-based sensors can interact with target reactants, operating through various detection mechanisms such as fluorescence quenching, colorimetric changes, or electrical conductivity alterations. These mechanisms can be customized to meet the specific needs of different detection applications, providing a versatile platform for monitoring a wide range of contaminants.
In addition to adsorption and sensing, MOFs can also be designed to include catalytic metal ions or clusters that facilitate the degradation of contaminants. Their large surface area and high porosity provide numerous catalytic sites, enhancing the efficiency of these processes. The tunability of MOFs further allows for the incorporation of specific ligands that improve selectivity, making them highly effective for targeted contaminant degradation.
The versatility of MOFs enables the creation of multifunctional platforms capable of addressing multiple contaminants simultaneously. This reduces the need for multiple treatment steps, streamlining the process and leading to cost savings. By leveraging the unique properties and functionalities of MOFs, we can develop more effective, efficient, and sustainable wastewater treatment processes, contributing to environmental protection and sustainability. However, it should be noted that it is challenging for multifunctional MOF materials to outperform single-functional MOF materials due to potential interference among the functions. Therefore, it is considered satisfactory if the individual functions do not degrade in multifunctional materials.

5.2. Future Outlooks

There are several efforts that need to be made to fully harness the potential of multifunctional MOFs in the treatment of contaminants in an aquatic environment: (1) Continued efforts are needed to design and synthesize MOFs with specific functionalities that target different contaminants in wastewater. This includes tuning the pore size, shape, and chemistry of the MOFs to optimize their adsorption and catalytic properties. (2) A deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the adsorption and catalytic processes in MOFs is needed to optimize their performance. This includes studying the interactions between MOFs and contaminants, as well as the effects of environmental conditions on these interactions.
So that multifunctional MOF materials can be used in industrial applications for real wastewater treatment, several efforts need to be made: (1) The economic feasibility of producing and using MOFs on a large scale needs to be improved, and developing cost-effective methods should be deeply studied. (2) The stability and durability should be greatly enhanced, because in real wastewater, many harsh conditions are common, for example, high temperatures, acidic or alkaline pH levels, and the presence of oxidizing agents. (3) The environmental impact should be evaluated because there is the potential release of metal ions or other contaminants from the MOFs.
Overall, the successful application of multifunctional MOFs in wastewater treatment will require a concerted effort across multiple disciplines and research areas. By addressing these key challenges, we can harness the unique properties of MOFs to develop more effective, efficient, and sustainable contaminant treatment in an aquatic environment. In addition, the development of MOFs can be enhanced by artificial intelligence (AI).

5.3. Future Recommendation

A significant number of studies have focused on the application of MOFs in treating contaminants in aquatic environments. However, research on multifunctional MOFs remains scarce.
In fundamental research on MOF materials used in wastewater treatment, we believe that the intelligent design of MOFs represents a crucial research direction. Attention should be given to MOFs that exhibit high efficiency in monitoring and eliminating contaminants, or even converting them into high-value-added products. Furthermore, a broader range of contaminants should be considered, such as microplastics and some fluorine compounds in aquatic environments. To advance the industrial application of MOFs in real-world wastewater treatment, efforts should be directed toward reducing costs, enhancing stability (including hydrothermal and chemical stability), increasing reusability, and developing production methods that are readily industrializable.
Utilizing AI algorithms for optimization and simulation techniques, MOF materials with specific molecular structures and chemical functionalities can be designed. These materials can efficiently adsorb, detect, and degrade targeted pollutants. Additionally, integrating MOFs with AI technology enables the construction of an intelligent water pollution treatment system that integrates detection, adsorption, and degradation into one system. This system could achieve precise identification, efficient adsorption, and complete degradation of pollutants, providing a comprehensive and efficient solution for water pollution treatment. In summary, the combination of MOFs and AI technology will bring revolutionary changes to the detection, adsorption, and degradation treatment of water pollutants.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jinbin Yang was employed by the company Shandong High-tech Medical Device Innovation Center Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Khan, M.S.; Zhu, S.; Chen, S.B. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Oxo-Anion Removal in Wastewater Treatment: Advancements and Applications. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 500, 157396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Manzoor, M.H.; Naz, N.; Naqvi, S.M.G.; Ashraf, S.; Ashiq, M.Z.; Verpoort, F. Wastewater treatment using Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). Appl. Mater. Today 2024, 40, 102358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Han, J.; Zhang, H.; Fan, Y.; Zhou, L.; Zhang, Z.; Li, P.; Li, Z.; Du, Y.; Meng, Q. Progressive Insights into Metal-Organic Frameworks and Metal-Organic Framework-Membrane Composite Systems for Wastewater Management. Molecules 2024, 29, 1615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Meng, F.; Wei, K.; Li, Y.; Zhang, L.; Xu, S.; Shi, X.; Tang, B. Efficient synthesis of multifunctional α-Fe2O3 QDs/TS-1 as an artificial nanozyme for simultaneous colorimetric detection and photodegradation of tetracyclines. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 498, 155225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Meng, F.; Ling, Y.; Li, Y.; Liu, D.; Wei, K.; Sun, L.; Sang, Z. Synthesis of visible-light-driven photocatalyst of TiO2 modified waste red mud and its application in tetracycline hydrochloride removal. Surf. Interfaces 2022, 35, 102482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Fan, Y.; Lu, T.; Wang, X.; Lu, G.; Tong, K.; Wang, Q.; Li, B. Fabrication of dual-functional Zr-based MOF incorporating amino and sulfoxide derivatives for simultaneous removal and detection of tetracycline antibiotics. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2024, 339, 126676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Alessandretti, I.; Rigueto, C.V.T.; Nazari, M.T.; Rosseto, M.; Dettmer, A. Removal of diclofenac from wastewater: A comprehensive review of detection, characteristics and tertiary treatment techniques. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 106743. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Yang, L.; Xu, T.; Zou, H.; Zhang, S.; Huang, J.; Cai, L.; Zou, D.; Huang, J.; Yao, M. Self-assembled fluorescent Zn-MOF with high specific surface area based on the coordination interaction for sensitive detection and selective removal of tetracycline antibiotic in water. Opt. Mater. 2024, 157, 116126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Chen, Q.; Zhang, H.; Sun, H.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, D.; Li, X.; Han, L.; Wang, G.; Zhang, Y. Sensitive dual-signal detection and effective removal of tetracycline antibiotics in honey based on a hollow triple-metal organic framework nanozymes. Food Chem. 2024, 442, 138383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Yan, Z.; Meng, L.; Jiang, S.; Deng, Y.; Xi, J.; Zhang, L.; Li, P.; Xiao, H.; Wu, W. Bifunctional Nanocellulose@MOF composite aerogel for selective fluorescent detection and efficient removal of tetracycline. Carbohydr. Polym. 2025, 347, 122697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Li, J.; Yao, R.; Deng, B.; Li, Z.; Tuo, K.; Fan, C.; Liu, G.; Pu, S. A facile construction of bifunctional core-shell-shell structured magnetic metal-organic frameworks for detection and removal of tetracycline. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 464, 142626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Yi, M.; Xia, Q.; Tan, J.; Shang, J.; Cheng, X. Catalytic-separation technology for highly efficient removal of emerging pollutants, desalination, and antimicrobials: A new strategy for complex wastewater treatment. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 493, 152568. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Lu, X.; Shen, L.; Chen, C.; Yu, W.; Wang, B.; Kong, N.; Zeng, Q.; Chen, S.; Huang, X.; Wang, Y.; et al. Advance of self-cleaning separation membranes for oil-containing wastewater treatment. Environ. Funct. Mater. 2024, 3, 72–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. He, C.; Wang, K.; Fang, K.; Gong, H.; Jin, Z.; He, Q.; Wang, Q. Up-concentration processes of organics for municipal wastewater treatment: New trends in separation. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 787, 147690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Xia, Y.-F.; Yuan, H.-Q.; Qiao, C.; Li, W.; Wang, R.; Chen, P.; Li, Y.-X.; Bao, G.-M. Multifunctional Eu3+-MOF for simultaneous quantification of malachite green and leuco-malachite green and efficient adsorption of malachite green. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 465, 133386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Mon, M.; Bruno, R.; Tiburcio, E.; Viciano-Chumillas, M.; Kalinke, L.H.G.; Ferrando-Soria, J.; Armentano, D.; Pardo, E. Multivariate Metal-Organic Frameworks for the Simultaneous Capture of Organic and Inorganic Contaminants from Water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 13601–13609. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Guo, Z.; Yang, F.; Yang, R.; Sun, L.; Li, Y.; Xu, J. Preparation of novel ZnO-NP@Zn-MOF-74 composites for simultaneous removal of copper and tetracycline from aqueous solution. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2021, 274, 118949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Miyah, Y.; El Messaoudi, N.; Benjelloun, M.; Georgin, J.; Franco, D.S.P.; Acikbas, Y.; Kusuma, H.S.; Sillanpää, M. MOF-derived magnetic nanocomposites as potential formulations for the efficient removal of organic pollutants from water via adsorption and advanced oxidation processes: A review. Mater. Today Sustain. 2024, 28, 100985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Maru, K.; Kalla, S.; Jangir, R. Efficient Dye Extraction from Wastewater Using Indium-MOF-Immobilized Polyvinylidene Fluoride Membranes with Selective Filtration for Enhanced Remediation. Langmuir 2024, 40, 8144–8161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Li, Y.; Pang, J.; Bu, X.-H. Multi-functional metal-organic frameworks for detection and removal of water pollutions. Chem. Commun. 2022, 58, 7890–7908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Wang, Y.; Li, Y.; Wang, C.; Yu, X.; Lai, G.; Li, X. Sense and Shoot: Multifunctional CaO2-loaded Cu-MOF nanosheets for integrated fluorescence detection and fenton-like degradation of tetracycline. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 481, 148635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Khan, M.S.; Li, Y.; Li, D.-S.; Qiu, J.; Xu, X.; Yang, H.Y. A review of metal-organic framework (MOF) materials as an effective photocatalyst for degradation of organic pollutants. Nanoscale Adv. 2023, 5, 6318–6348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Dong, F.; Pang, Z.; Yang, S.; Lin, Q.; Song, S.; Li, C.; Ma, X.; Nie, S. Improving Wastewater Treatment by Triboelectric-Photo/Electric Coupling Effect. ACS Nano 2022, 16, 3449–3475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Houska, J.; Stocco, L.; Hofstetter, T.B.; Gunten, U.v. Hydrogen Peroxide Formation during Ozonation of Olefins and Phenol: Mechanistic Insights from Oxygen Isotope Signatures. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 57, 18950–18959. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Zuo, Y.; Cheng, S.; Han, Y.; Pu, L.; Du, E.; Peng, M.; Li, A.; Li, W. Chlorination of Biopterin in Water: Deciphering the Kinetics, Disinfection Byproducts, and Toxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 20137–20146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Scandura, G.; Eid, S.; Alnajjar, A.A.; Paul, T.; Karanikolos, G.N.; Shetty, D.; Omer, K.; Alqerem, R.; Juma, A.; Wang, H.; et al. Photo-responsive metal-organic frameworks—Design strategies and emerging applications in photocatalysis and adsorption. Mater. Adv. 2023, 4, 1258–1285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kubiak, A.; Jaruga, M.; Lusina, A.; Nazim, T.; Sobańska, K.; Pietrzyk, P.; Cegłowski, M. Real-world application of molecularly imprinted TiO2-graphite photocatalysts: Efficient pharmaceutical removal under energy-optimized LED system. J. Water Process Eng. 2025, 69, 106894. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kallawar, G.; Thakare, N.; Bonde, S.; Barai, D.; Bhanvase, B.A.; Sonawane, A.; Sonawane, S.H.; Manickam, S. Exploring sonochemical synthesis for photocatalyst nanocomposites in water and wastewater treatment: An in-depth review. J. Clean. Prod. 2024, 485, 144279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Bui, T.K.; Nguyen, T.L.; Van Pham, V. Review of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts for Amoxicillin photocatalytic degradation. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 67, 106257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Firoozi, M.; Rafiee, Z.; Dashtian, K. New MOF/COF Hybrid as a Robust Adsorbent for Simultaneous Removal of Auramine O and Rhodamine B Dyes. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 9420–9428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Wang, C.-C.; Yi, X.-H.; Wang, P. Powerful combination of MOFs and C3N4 for enhanced photocatalytic performance. Appl. Catal. B 2019, 247, 24–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Patra, S.; Schaming, D.; Picot, P.; Pignié, M.-C.; Brubach, J.-B.; Sicard, L.; Le Caër, S.; Thill, A. Inorganic nanotubes with permanent wall polarization as dual photo-reactors for wastewater treatment with simultaneous fuel production. Environ. Sci. Nano 2021, 8, 2523–2541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Qian, Y.; Zhang, F.; Pang, H. A Review of MOFs and Their Composites-Based Photocatalysts: Synthesis and Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2104231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Li, C.; Huang, N.-Y.; Yang, Y.; Xu, Q.; Liao, G. Emerging metal-organic framework-based photocatalysts for solar-driven fuel production. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2025, 524, 216292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Li, B.; Wen, H.-M.; Cui, Y.; Zhou, W.; Qian, G.; Chen, B. Emerging Multifunctional Metal-Organic Framework Materials. Adv. Mater. 2016, 28, 8819–8860. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Chen, F.-Z.; Li, Y.-J.; Zhou, M.; Gong, X.-X.; Gao, Y.; Cheng, G.; Ren, S.-B.; Han, D.-M. Smart multifunctional direct Z-scheme In2S3@PCN-224 heterojunction for simultaneous detection and photodegradation towards antibiotic pollutants. Appl. Catal. B 2023, 328, 122517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Jia, W.; Fan, R.; Zhang, J.; Zhu, K.; Gai, S.; Yin, Y.; Yang, Y. Smart MOF-on-MOF Hydrogel as a Simple Rod-shaped Core for Visual Detection and Effective Removal of Pesticides. Small 2022, 18, 2201510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Liu, H.; Liu, Z.; Yi, J.; Ma, D.; Xia, F.; Tian, D.; Zhou, C. A dual-signal electroluminescence aptasensor based on hollow Cu/Co-MOF-luminol and g-C3N4 for simultaneous detection of acetamiprid and malathion. Sens. Actuators B 2021, 331, 129412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Ma, D.; Liu, J.; Liu, H.; Yi, J.; Xia, F.; Tian, D.; Zhou, C. Multiplexed electrochemical aptasensor based on mixed valence Ce(III, IV)-MOF for simultaneous determination of malathion and chlorpyrifos. Anal. Chim. Acta 2022, 1230, 340364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Fan, Z.; He, P.; Bai, H.; Liu, J.; Liu, H.; Liu, L.; Niu, R.; Gong, J. Green recycling of waste poly(ethylene terephthalate) into Ni-MOF nanorod for simultaneous interfacial solar evaporation and photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. EcoMat 2024, 6, 12422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Arya, K.; Kumar, A.; Kataria, R. Recent advances in MOF-based composites for the detection and adsorptive removal of Pb(II) ions in aqueous phase. Mater. Today Sustain. 2025, 29, 101057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Ding, M.; Cai, X.; Jiang, H.-L. Improving MOF stability: Approaches and applications. Chem. Sci. 2019, 10, 10209–10230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Liu, M.; Zhang, L.; Wang, M.; Wang, X.; Cui, H.; Wei, J.; Li, X. The role of metal-organic frameworks in removing emerging contaminants in wastewater. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 429, 139526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Alsehli, B.R. Toward sustainable environmental cleanup: Metal-organic frameworks in adsorption—A review. Desalin. Water Treat. 2023, 316, 44–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Xie, Y.; Zhang, T.; Wang, B.; Wang, W. The Application of Metal–Organic Frameworks in Water Treatment and Their Large-Scale Preparation: A Review. Materials 2024, 17, 1972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Singh, S.; Sivaram, N.; Nath, B.; Khan, N.A.; Singh, J.; Ramamurthy, P.C. Metal organic frameworks for wastewater treatment, renewable energy and circular economy contributions. npj Clean Water 2024, 7, 124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Wang, Y.; Ye, X.; Zhang, Q.; Han, W.; Liu, X.; Zhang, H.; Liu, H.; Wu, Z.; Shi, G. Unveiling the adsorption behavior and mass transfer mechanism of Rb+ and Cs+ adsorption on FeMn-MOF. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 502, 157999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Zhang, B.; Zhu, Z.; Wang, X.; Liu, X.; Kapteijn, F. Water Adsorption in MOFs: Structures and Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2304788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Wang, L.; Li, Y.-A.; Yang, F.; Liu, Q.-K.; Ma, J.-P.; Dong, Y.-B. Cd(II)-MOF: Adsorption, Separation, and Guest-Dependent Luminescence for Monohalobenzenes. Inorg. Chem. 2014, 53, 9087–9094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Huang, H.; Chen, Y.; Chen, Z.; Chen, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhu, J.-J. Electrochemical sensor based on Ce-MOF/carbon nanotube composite for the simultaneous discrimination of hydroquinone and catechol. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 416, 125895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Lu, Y.; Yu, L.; Zhang, S.; Su, P.; Li, X.; Hao, X.; Wang, S.; Sun, M. Dual-functional fluorescent metal-organic framework based beads for visual detection and removal of oxytetracycline in real aqueous solution. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2023, 625, 157202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Wu, N.; Guo, H.; Wang, M.; Cao, Y.; Sun, L.; Yang, F.; Zhang, T.; Peng, L.; Liu, Y.; Yang, W. A novel core-shell coordination assembled hybrid via postsynthetic metal exchange for simultaneous detection and removal of tetracycline. Anal. Chim. Acta 2022, 1190, 339247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Zhao, Y.; Wang, Q.; Wang, H.; Zhangsun, H.; Sun, X.; Bu, T.; Liu, Y.; Wang, W.; Xu, Z.; Wang, L. Europium-based metal-organic framework containing characteristic metal chains: A novel turn-on fluorescence sensor for simultaneous high-performance detection and removal of tetracycline. Sens. Actuators B 2021, 334, 129610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Li, Y.; Wang, J.; Huang, Z.; Qian, C.; Tian, Y.; Duan, Y. An Eu-doped Zr-metal-organic framework for simultaneous detection and removal of antibiotic tetracycline. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 106012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Wu, R.; Bi, C.; Zhang, D.; Fan, C.; Wang, L.; Zhu, B.; Liu, W.; Li, N.; Zhang, X.; Fan, Y. Highly selective, sensitive and stable three-dimensional luminescent metal-organic framework for detecting and removing of the antibiotic in aqueous solution. Microchem. J. 2020, 159, 105349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Yin, R.; Bu, Y.; Zhu, H.; Su, P.; Ye, E.; Li, Z.; Jun Loh, X.; Yuan, C.; Wang, S. Simultaneous detection and removal of 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl phenol and dichromate by metal-organic framework. Spectrochim. Acta Part A 2023, 297, 122735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Lei, M.; Ge, F.; Ren, S.; Gao, X.; Zheng, H. A water-stable Cd-MOF and corresponding MOF@melamine foam composite for detection and removal of antibiotics, explosives, and anions. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2022, 286, 120433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Zhu, K.; Wu, J.; Fan, R.; Cao, Y.; Lu, H.; Wang, B.; Zheng, X.; Yin, Y.; Wang, P.; Yang, Y. Selective adsorption and detection of p-arsanilic acid on MOF-on-MOF heterostructure induced by nitrogen-rich self-assembly template. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 427, 131483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. He, X.; Wang, Y.; Li, H.; Han, M.; Feng, Z.; Du, K.; Li, X. Approach for concurrent detection and removal of diclofenac in wastewater: Integration of MOF with Poly(deep eutectic solvent) imprinting method. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 114107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Jia, W.; Fan, R.; Zhang, J.; Geng, Z.; Li, P.; Sun, J.; Gai, S.; Zhu, K.; Jiang, X.; Yang, Y. Portable metal-organic framework alginate beads for high-sensitivity fluorescence detection and effective removal of residual pesticides in fruits and vegetables. Food Chem. 2022, 377, 132054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Jia, W.; Fan, R.; Zhang, J.; Zhu, K.; Gai, S.; Nai, H.; Guo, H.; Wu, J.; Yang, Y. Home-made multifunctional auxiliary device for in-situ imaging detection and removal of quinclorac residues through MOF decorated gel refills. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 450, 138303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Bi, X.; Liu, X.; Luo, L.; Liu, S.; He, Y.; Zhang, L.; Li, L.; You, T. Isolation of Sensing Units and Adsorption Groups Based on MOF-on-MOF Hierarchical Structure for Both Highly Sensitive Detection and Removal of Hg2+. Inorg. Chem. 2024, 63, 2224–2233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Wu, N.; Guo, H.; Xue, R.; Wang, M.; Cao, Y.; Wang, X.; Xu, M.; Yang, W. A free nitrogen-containing Sm-MOF for selective detection and facile removal of mercury(II). Colloids Surf. A 2021, 618, 126484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Safaei, S.; Kazemian, H.; Junk, P.C. Dual functional MOF as a selective fluorescent naked-eye detector and effective sorbent for mercury ion. J. Solid State Chem. 2021, 300, 122267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Radwan, A.; El-Sewify, I.M.; Shahat, A.; Azzazy, H.M.E.; Khalil, M.M.H.; El-Shahat, M.F. Multiuse Al-MOF Chemosensors for Visual Detection and Removal of Mercury Ions in Water and Skin-Whitening Cosmetics. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 15097–15107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Yoo, J.; Ryu, U.; Kwon, W.; Choi, K.M. A multi-dye containing MOF for the ratiometric detection and simultaneous removal of Cr2O72− in the presence of interfering ions. Sens. Actuators B 2019, 283, 426–433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Huang, J.; Zhou, S.; Zhang, S.; Wang, L.; Wu, X.-T.; Zhu, Q.-L.; Wen, Y. Two-dimensional layered MOF nanosheets with multiple binding sites for selective detection and removal of Fe(III) ions. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2024, 336, 126294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Arya, K.; Kumar, A.; Mehra, S.; Divya; Kumar, A.; Kumar Mehta, S.; Kataria, R. Exploration and removal of multiple metal ions using mixed-linker-architected Zn-MOF in aqueous media. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2023, 307, 122551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Lv, S.-W.; Liu, J.-M.; Li, C.-Y.; Zhao, N.; Wang, Z.-H.; Wang, S. A novel and universal metal-organic frameworks sensing platform for selective detection and efficient removal of heavy metal ions. Chem. Eng. J. 2019, 375, 122111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Fan, L.; Deng, M.; Lin, C.; Xu, C.; Liu, Y.; Shi, Z.; Wang, Y.; Xu, Z.; Li, L.; He, M. A multifunctional composite Fe3O4/MOF/l-cysteine for removal, magnetic solid phase extraction and fluorescence sensing of Cd(ii). RSC Adv. 2018, 8, 10561–10572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Xie, D.; Ma, Y.; Gu, Y.; Zhou, H.; Zhang, H.; Wang, G.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, H. Bifunctional NH2-MIL-88(Fe) metal-organic framework nanooctahedra for highly sensitive detection and efficient removal of arsenate in aqueous media. J. Mater. Chem. A 2017, 5, 23794–23804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Ding, S.; Wang, X. Terbium-based metal organic framework and its immobilized nanofibrous membrane for selective detection and efficient removal of phosphate. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 464, 142751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Yin, H.-Q.; Tan, K.; Jensen, S.; Teat, S.J.; Ullah, S.; Hei, X.; Velasco, E.; Oyekan, K.; Meyer, N.; Wang, X.-Y.; et al. A switchable sensor and scavenger: Detection and removal of fluorinated chemical species by a luminescent metal-organic framework. Chem. Sci. 2021, 12, 14189–14197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Zhang, J.; Yang, S.; Shao, L.; Ren, Y.; Jiang, J.; Wang, H.; Tang, H.; Deng, H.; Xia, T. Highly Sensitive Adsorption and Detection of Iodide in Aqueous Solution by a Post-Synthesized Zirconium-Organic Framework. Molecules 2022, 27, 8547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Barathe, P.; Kaur, K.; Reddy, S.; Shriram, V.; Kumar, V. Antibiotic pollution and associated antimicrobial resistance in the environment. J. Hazard. Mater. Lett. 2024, 5, 100105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Yang, J.; Xu, Z.; Wan, D.; Wang, X.; Zhang, X.; Zhu, Y.; Guo, J. Pollution characteristics of heavy metals, antibiotic and antibiotic resistance genes in the crested ibis and their habitat across different lifestyle and geography. Environ. Res. 2024, 261, 119701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Saeed, F.; Anil Reddy, K.; Sridhar, S. Efficient removal of environmentally hazardous heavy metal ions from water by NH2-MIL-101-Fe and MOF-808-EDTA based polyether sulfone adsorbents. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 497, 154688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Hojjati-Najafabadi, A.; Nasr Esfahani, P.; Davar, F.; Aminabhavi, T.M.; Vasseghian, Y. Adsorptive removal of malachite green using novel GO@ZnO-NiFe2O4-αAl2O3 nanocomposites. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 471, 144485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Jaffari, Z.H.; Abbas, A.; Lam, S.-M.; Park, S.; Chon, K.; Kim, E.-S.; Cho, K.H. Machine learning approaches to predict the photocatalytic performance of bismuth ferrite-based materials in the removal of malachite green. J. Hazard. Mater. 2023, 442, 130031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Djilani, C.; Zaghdoudi, R.; Djazi, F.; Bouchekima, B.; Lallam, A.; Modarressi, A.; Rogalski, M. Adsorption of dyes on activated carbon prepared from apricot stones and commercial activated carbon. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2015, 53, 112–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Khan, I.; Shah, T.; Tariq, M.R.; Ahmad, M.; Zhang, B. Understanding the toxicity of trinitrophenol and promising decontamination strategies for its neutralization: Challenges and future perspectives. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Umapathi, R.; Raju, C.V.; Safarkhani, M.; Haribabu, J.; Lee, H.U.; Rani, G.M.; Huh, Y.S. Versatility of MXene based materials for the electrochemical detection of phenolic contaminants. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2025, 525, 216305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Wumaer, M.; Huo, T.; Gong, H.; Yalikun, N. Synthesis of coal tar pitch derived porous carbon and its application for electrochemical detection of phenol isomers. Microchem. J. 2025, 209, 112691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Hu, X.-J.; Li, Y.-L.; Liu, H.-X.; Ying, S.-M.; Yin, Q.; Liu, T.-F. Removal of diclofenac sodium from water using a polyacrylonitrile mixed-matrix membrane embedded with MOF-808. RSC Adv. 2024, 14, 12142–12146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Gao, Y.; Cheng, T.; Zhao, F.; Huang, G.; Bi, J. A hybrid linker-MOF fibrous composite for efficient diclofenac removal and self-cleaning. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2024, 337, 126260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Chen, Z.; He, G.; You, T.; Zhang, T.; Liu, B.; Wang, Y. Complex pollution of Fluoroquinolone antibiotics and metal oxides/metal ions in water: A review on occurrence, formation mechanisms, removal and ecotoxicity. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Yan, C.; Qu, Z.; Wang, J.; Cao, L.; Han, Q. Microalgal bioremediation of heavy metal pollution in water: Recent advances, challenges, and prospects. Chemosphere 2022, 286, 131870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Cheng, W.; Yin, H.; Dong, F.; Li, X.; Zhang, D.; Lu, C. Analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment of vertical heavy metal pollution in the water environment of reservoir in the west coast new area of Qingdao, China. Environ. Pollut. 2024, 362, 125021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Kalisinska, E.; Lanocha-Arendarczyk, N.; Kosik-Bogacka, D.; Budis, H.; Pilarczyk, B.; Tomza-Marciniak, A.; Podlasinska, J.; Cieslik, L.; Popiolek, M.; Pirog, A.; et al. Muscle mercury and selenium in fishes and semiaquatic mammals from a selenium-deficient area. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2017, 136, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Bi, C.-Y.; He, Y.-C.; Zhang, H.-Y.; Dong, Y.-H.; Su, S.-J.; Shen, Z.-S.; Wang, L.; Jing, Z. Two novel three-dimensional Pb(II)-based coordination polymers for the detection of Fe3+ and Cr2O72− in water. J. Mol. Struct. 2025, 1326, 141158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Wang, J.; Zhao, Y.; Fan, L.; Zhang, J.; Sun, C.; Li, W.; Chang, Z. A multifunctional metal–organic complex fluorescent probe for highly sensitive detection of lysine, CrO42−/Cr2O72−, Fe3+ and nitro-aromatic compounds. Inorg. Chim. Acta 2025, 574, 122415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Li, D.; Liu, A.; Xing, Y.; Li, Z.; Luo, Y.; Zhao, S.; Dong, L.; Xie, T.; Guo, K.; Li, J. A smart chemosensor with different response mechanisms to multi-analytes: Chromogenic and fluorogenic recognition of Cu2+, Fe3+, and Zn2+. Dyes Pigments 2023, 213, 111180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Yuna, Z. Review of the Natural, Modified, and Synthetic Zeolites for Heavy Metals Removal from Wastewater. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2016, 33, 443–454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  94. Erdem, E.; Karapinar, N.; Donat, R. The removal of heavy metal cations by natural zeolites. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2004, 280, 309–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Xiao, H.; Jiang, M.; Su, R.; Luo, Y.; Jiang, Y.; Hu, R. Fertilization intensities at the buffer zones of ponds regulate nitrogen and phosphorus pollution in an agricultural watershed. Water Res. 2024, 250, 121033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  96. Xiong, X.; Li, Y.; Zhang, C. Enhanced phosphorus removal from anoxic water using oxygen-carrying iron-rich biochar: Combined roles of adsorption and keystone taxa. Water Res. 2024, 266, 122433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Talpur, S.A.; Rashad, M.; Ahmed, A.; Rosatelli, G.; Baloch, M.Y.J.; Khan, A.H.A.; Talpur, H.A.; Iqbal, J. Pollution indicators and human health risk assessment of fluoride contaminated drinking groundwater in southern Pakistan. HydroResearch 2025, 8, 167–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Kunarbekova, M.; Busquets, R.; Sailaukhanuly, Y.; Mikhalovsky, S.V.; Toshtay, K.; Kudaibergenov, K.; Azat, S. Carbon adsorbents for the uptake of radioactive iodine from contaminated water effluents: A systematic review. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 67, 106174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Lv, W.; Song, Y.; Mo, Z. Synthesis of metal-organic framework-luminescent guest (MOF@LG) composites and their applications in environmental health sensing: A mini review. Talanta 2025, 283, 127105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Yuan, L.; Chai, J.; Wang, S.; Li, T.; Yan, X.; Wang, J.; Yin, H. Biomimetic Laccase-Cu2O@MOF for synergetic degradation and colorimetric detection of phenolic compounds in wastewater. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2023, 30, 103085. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Liao, X.; Li, B.; Wang, L.; Chen, Y. Boric acid functionalized Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF as a luminescent nanozyme for fluorescence detection and degradation of caffeic acid. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2024, 264, 116637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  102. Wang, L.; Chen, Y. Luminescence-Sensing Tb-MOF Nanozyme for the Detection and Degradation of Estrogen Endocrine Disruptors. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 8351–8358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  103. Chen, P.; Guo, X.; Li, F. Antibiotic resistance genes in bioaerosols: Emerging, non-ignorable and pernicious pollutants. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 348, 131094. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Chen, X.; Zhou, Z.; Gudda, F.O.; Tang, L.; Wang, H.; Czech, B.; Oleszczuk, P.; Gao, Y. Hydroxyl groups and vacancy defects modified Mo2C MXene as peroxymonosulfate activator for antibiotics degradation. J. Clean. Prod. 2025, 486, 144540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Ahmaruzzaman, M.; Mishra, S.R.; Gadore, V.; Yadav, G.; Roy, S.; Bhattacharjee, B.; Bhuyan, A.; Hazarika, B.; Darabdhara, J.; Kumari, K. Phenolic compounds in water: From toxicity and source to sustainable solutions—An integrated review of removal methods, advanced technologies, cost analysis, and future prospects. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Zhang, Y.; Li, Y.; Tabassum, S. Based on nanocomposites for degradation of phenolic compounds from aqueous environments by advanced oxidation processes: A review. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 61, 105286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Diaz, N.O.; Rodríguez, C.A.; Durán-Álvarez, J.C.; Talreja, N.; Quispe-Fuentes, I.; Martínez-Avelar, C.; Bizarro, M.; Valdés, H.; Mera, A.C. A theoretical and experimental approach for photocatalytic degradation of caffeic acid using BiOBr microspheres. Mater. Sci. Eng. B 2021, 273, 115432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Ren, J.; Li, J.; Lv, L.; Wang, J. Degradation of caffeic acid by dielectric barrier discharge plasma combined with Ce doped CoOOH catalyst. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 402, 123772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Tan, C.; Huang, Y.; Lin, X.; Li, P.; Su, L.; Wang, Q. Insights into ibuprofen degradation in boron-doped CuO/PMS systems: Role of Cu, kinetics, mechanisms and degradation pathways. J. Water Process Eng. 2025, 69, 106711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Fidelis, M.Z.; dos Santos, A.S.G.G.; de Paula, E.T.; Lenzi, G.G.; Soares, O.S.G.P.; Andreo, O.A.B. Nb2O5/MWCNT nanocomposites for the degradation of ibuprofen via photocatalysis and catalytic ozonation. Catal. Commun. 2024, 187, 106853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Garg, R.; Sabouni, R.; Ghommem, M. Dual detection and degradation of anti-inflammatory drugs in aqueous environments using amino-functionalized MOF/metal oxide based ‘turn-on’ sensors. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 66, 105947. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Cosma, D.-V.; Roşu, M.-C.; Socaci, C.; Rostas, A.M.; Urda, A.; Radu, T.; Turza, A.; Dan, M.; Costescu, R.; Gustavsen, K.R.; et al. Adsorption-catalysis synergy in the visible-light-driven removal of 17β-estradiol by (Au)TiO2 nanotubes-graphene composites. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  113. Liu, J.; Zheng, J.; Lu, Y.; Feng, Z.; Zhang, S.; Sun, T. Prepared Sandwich structure WS2/ag@MIP composite for ultrasensitive SERS detection of trace 17β-estradiol in food. Food Chem. 2024, 460, 140731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  114. Kim, M.; Han, J. Treatment techniques for removal of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) from real wastewater: Limitations, challenges, and future research directions. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 63, 105463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Ardiati, F.C.; Anita, S.H.; Nurhayat, O.D.; Chempaka, R.M.; Yanto, D.H.Y.; Watanabe, T.; Wilén, B.-M. Evaluation of batch and fed-batch rotating drum biological contactor using immobilized Trametes hirsuta EDN082 for non-sterile real textile wastewater treatment. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 113241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Sharma, I.; Kumar, A.; Arya, K.; Mehra, S.; Kumar, A.; Kumar Mehta, S.; Kataria, R. Dual-functional luminescent Zn-MOF@MCHS nanocomposite for TNP detection and copper(II) adsorptive removal. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2025, 355, 129538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  117. Li, X.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, L.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, K.; Cai, Y.; Xu, Y.; Gai, Y.; Xiong, K. Viologen-Based Cationic Metal-Organic Framework for Antibiotics Detection and MnO4 Removal in Water. Cryst. Growth Des. 2022, 22, 3991–3997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Qasem, K.M.A.; Khan, S.; Chinnam, S.; Saleh, H.A.M.; Mantasha, I.; Zeeshan, M.; Manea, Y.K.; Shahid, M. Sustainable fabrication of Co-MOF@CNT nano-composite for efficient adsorption and removal of organic dyes and selective sensing of Cr(VI) in aqueous phase. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2022, 291, 126748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Miao, Q.; Hakimifar, A.; Akbar Razavi, S.A.; Abbasi, H.; Tehrani, A.A.; Chen, J.-Q.; Hu, M.-L.; Morsali, A.; Retailleau, P. Multi-functionalization strategy for environmental monitoring: A metal-organic framework for high capacity Mercury(II) removal and exceptionally sensitive detection of nitroaromatics. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 376, 134301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Li, W.-T.; Hu, Z.-J.; Meng, J.; Zhang, X.; Gao, W.; Chen, M.-L.; Wang, J.-H. Zn-based metal organic framework-covalent organic framework composites for trace lead extraction and fluorescence detection of TNP. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 411, 125021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Wang, J.; Huang, R.; Qi, W.; Su, R.; He, Z. Preparation of amorphous MOF based biomimetic nanozyme with high laccase- and catecholase-like activity for the degradation and detection of phenolic compounds. Chem. Eng. J. 2022, 434, 134677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Wang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Shi, Z.; Lu, T.; Wang, Q.; Li, B. Multifunctional Zr-MOF Based on Bisimidazole Tetracarboxylic Acid for pH Sensing and Photoreduction of Cr(VI). ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2021, 13, 54217–54226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Zayed, A.M.; Ragab, A.H.; Al-Mhyawi, S.R.; Gumaah, N.F.; Masoud, M.A.; El Maghrabi, A.H.; El-Rabiee, M.M.; Abdelaziz, M.H.; Metwally, B.S. Innovative chrysotile/polyamide nanotextile filter for sustainable treatment of aqueous solutions and real wastewater: Fabrication, characterization, and performance evaluation. J. Water Process Eng. 2025, 69, 106727. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Luo, Q.; Li, J.; Zhang, Z.; Liu, G.; Chen, J.; Chen, Y.; Zhao, Z. Formation and adaptation of algal-bacterial granular sludge in real Chinese liquor brewing wastewater treatment. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  125. Nimbalkar, M.N.; Bhat, B.R. Simultaneous adsorption of methylene blue and heavy metals from water using Zr-MOF having free carboxylic group. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2021, 9, 106216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  126. Singh, S.; Kaushal, S.; Kaur, J.; Kaur, G.; Mittal, S.K.; Singh, P.P. CaFu MOF as an efficient adsorbent for simultaneous removal of imidacloprid pesticide and cadmium ions from wastewater. Chemosphere 2021, 272, 129648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Xiao, Z.; Zhou, J.; Fan, L.; Li, Y.; He, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, L. Controllable Preparation of Cu-MOF-Coated Carboxyl Filter Paper for Simultaneous Removal of Organic Dye and Metal Ions. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2021, 60, 7311–7319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Wang, Y.; Gao, Z.; Shang, Y.; Qi, Z.; Zhao, W.; Peng, Y. Proportional modulation of zinc-based MOF/carbon nanotube hybrids for simultaneous removal of phosphate and emerging organic contaminants with high efficiency. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 417, 128063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Haris, M.; Khan, M.W.; Zavabeti, A.; Mahmood, N.; Eshtiaghi, N. Self-assembly of C@FeO nanopillars on 2D-MOF for simultaneous removal of microplastic and dissolved contaminants from water. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 455, 140390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  130. Zhou, Y.; Xiong, J.; Wang, L.; Li, F.; Bai, H.; Wang, S.; Yang, X. Multi-ligand strategy for enhanced removal of heavy metal ions by thiol-functionalized defective Zr-MOFs. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 479, 135723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Boix, G.; Troyano, J.; Garzón-Tovar, L.; Camur, C.; Bermejo, N.; Yazdi, A.; Piella, J.; Bastus, N.G.; Puntes, V.F.; Imaz, I.; et al. MOF-Beads Containing Inorganic Nanoparticles for the Simultaneous Removal of Multiple Heavy Metals from Water. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 10554–10562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Yu, J.; Wei, Z.; Li, Q.; Wan, F.; Chao, Z.; Zhang, X.; Lin, L.; Meng, H.; Tian, L. Advanced Cancer Starvation Therapy by Simultaneous Deprivation of Lactate and Glucose Using a MOF Nanoplatform. Adv. Sci. 2021, 8, 2101467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  133. Wang, J.; Hou, J.; Wang, L.; Zhu, Z.; Han, B.; Chen, L.; Liu, W. Pollution characteristics, environmental issues, and green development of neonicotinoid insecticides in China: Insights from Imidacloprid. Environ. Pollut. 2025, 365, 125394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  134. Fatimah, N.; Ashraf, S.; Nayana, R.U.K.; Anju, P.B.; Showkat, M.; Perveen, K.; Bukhari, N.A.; Sayyed, R.Z.; Mastinu, A. Evaluation of suitability and biodegradability of the organophosphate insecticides to mitigate insecticide pollution in onion farming. Heliyon 2024, 10, e32580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Achache, M.; Seddik, N.B.; Bouchta, D.; Draoui, K.; Choukairi, M. NiO nanoparticles modified carbon paste electrode for the voltammetric simultaneous detection of catechol and hydroquinone as environmental pollutants. Microchem. J. 2025, 208, 112578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  136. Wang, A.; Zhou, A.; Sui, J. One-step synthesis of AuNPs decorated PEDOT nano-horns for simultaneously sensing hydroquinone and catechol. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2024, 19, 100562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Zheng, S.; Zhang, N.; Li, L.; Liu, T.; Zhang, Y.; Tang, J.; Guo, J.; Su, S. Synthesis of Graphene Oxide-Coupled CoNi Bimetallic MOF Nanocomposites for the Simultaneous Analysis of Catechol and Hydroquinone. Sensors 2023, 23, 6957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Qi, Y.; Chen, X.; Huo, D.; Liu, H.; Yang, M.; Hou, C. Simultaneous detection of Cd2+ and Pb2+ in food based on sensing electrode prepared by conductive carbon paper, rGO and CoZn·MOF (CP-rGO-CoZn·MOF). Anal. Chim. Acta 2022, 1220, 339812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  139. Nguyen, M.B.; Nga, D.T.N.; Thu, V.T.; Piro, B.; Truong, T.N.P.; Yen, P.T.H.; Le, G.H.; Hung, L.Q.; Vu, T.A.; Ha, V.T.T. Novel nanoscale Yb-MOF used as highly efficient electrode for simultaneous detection of heavy metal ions. J. Mater. Sci. 2021, 56, 8172–8185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  140. Baghayeri, M.; Amiri, A.; Safapour Moghaddam, B.; Nodehi, M. Cu-Based MOF for Simultaneous Determination of Trace Tl (I) and Hg (II) by Stripping Voltammetry. J. Electrochem. Soc. 2020, 167, 167522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Treatment of various pollutants by multifunctional MOFs.
Figure 1. Treatment of various pollutants by multifunctional MOFs.
Molecules 30 01336 g001
Figure 2. (a) The Zr6 cluster and H4SBTD-NH2 ligand. (b) The 3D framework of Zr-MOF. (c) (4,8)-connected csq net of Zr-MOF [6].
Figure 2. (a) The Zr6 cluster and H4SBTD-NH2 ligand. (b) The 3D framework of Zr-MOF. (c) (4,8)-connected csq net of Zr-MOF [6].
Molecules 30 01336 g002
Figure 3. In situ growth of fluorescent Zr-MOF and construction of multifunctional material [10].
Figure 3. In situ growth of fluorescent Zr-MOF and construction of multifunctional material [10].
Molecules 30 01336 g003
Figure 4. (A) Schematic illustration of preparation process for Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOF. (B,C) Detection and isolation of TC [11].
Figure 4. (A) Schematic illustration of preparation process for Fe3O4@PDA@Eu-MOF. (B,C) Detection and isolation of TC [11].
Molecules 30 01336 g004
Figure 5. (a) The synthesis of Eu3+-MOF-1 and (b) the multifunctionalities of Eu3+-MOF-1 for the colorimetric and ratiometric detection of MG, the simultaneous quantification of MG and LMG, and adsorption-based removal of MG [15].
Figure 5. (a) The synthesis of Eu3+-MOF-1 and (b) the multifunctionalities of Eu3+-MOF-1 for the colorimetric and ratiometric detection of MG, the simultaneous quantification of MG and LMG, and adsorption-based removal of MG [15].
Molecules 30 01336 g005
Figure 6. Schematic of Cu+-tpp@ZIF-8 fabrication process [58].
Figure 6. Schematic of Cu+-tpp@ZIF-8 fabrication process [58].
Molecules 30 01336 g006
Figure 7. The synthesis process of the DES, MOF, and Poly(DES)@MOF [59].
Figure 7. The synthesis process of the DES, MOF, and Poly(DES)@MOF [59].
Molecules 30 01336 g007
Figure 8. Schematic of treatment of Cr2O72− using Dyes⊂MOF-801 [66].
Figure 8. Schematic of treatment of Cr2O72− using Dyes⊂MOF-801 [66].
Molecules 30 01336 g008
Figure 9. The structure of In(tcpp) and its luminescence switchable turn-off and turn-on response [73].
Figure 9. The structure of In(tcpp) and its luminescence switchable turn-off and turn-on response [73].
Molecules 30 01336 g009
Figure 10. Illustration of (A) the Exo III-mediated DNA recycling reaction; (B) acid-initiated bimetallic ion-mediated TC fluorescence detection and Fenton-like degradation. [21].
Figure 10. Illustration of (A) the Exo III-mediated DNA recycling reaction; (B) acid-initiated bimetallic ion-mediated TC fluorescence detection and Fenton-like degradation. [21].
Molecules 30 01336 g010
Figure 11. (A) Preparation of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF using a multi-step hydrothermal method. (B) Sensing principle of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF for CA by boric acid as a recognition group. (C) Catalytic mechanism of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF nanozyme for the degradation of CA by producing reactive oxygen species [100].
Figure 11. (A) Preparation of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF using a multi-step hydrothermal method. (B) Sensing principle of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF for CA by boric acid as a recognition group. (C) Catalytic mechanism of Fe3O4@CeO2/Tb-MOF nanozyme for the degradation of CA by producing reactive oxygen species [100].
Molecules 30 01336 g011
Figure 12. Scheme of fabricating Ni-MOF/carbon black evaporator for simultaneous water evaporation and photodegradation of tetracycline [40].
Figure 12. Scheme of fabricating Ni-MOF/carbon black evaporator for simultaneous water evaporation and photodegradation of tetracycline [40].
Molecules 30 01336 g012
Figure 13. Illustration of preparation process of nanopillared MOF@C@FeO, adsorption process, magnetic separation, and potential microplastic removal pathway [129].
Figure 13. Illustration of preparation process of nanopillared MOF@C@FeO, adsorption process, magnetic separation, and potential microplastic removal pathway [129].
Molecules 30 01336 g013
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Liu, Y.; Yang, J.; Wu, J.; Jiang, Z.; Zhang, X.; Meng, F. The Application of Multifunctional Metal–Organic Frameworks for the Detection, Adsorption, and Degradation of Contaminants in an Aquatic Environment. Molecules 2025, 30, 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061336

AMA Style

Liu Y, Yang J, Wu J, Jiang Z, Zhang X, Meng F. The Application of Multifunctional Metal–Organic Frameworks for the Detection, Adsorption, and Degradation of Contaminants in an Aquatic Environment. Molecules. 2025; 30(6):1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061336

Chicago/Turabian Style

Liu, Yachen, Jinbin Yang, Junlin Wu, Zehao Jiang, Xinyu Zhang, and Fanjun Meng. 2025. "The Application of Multifunctional Metal–Organic Frameworks for the Detection, Adsorption, and Degradation of Contaminants in an Aquatic Environment" Molecules 30, no. 6: 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061336

APA Style

Liu, Y., Yang, J., Wu, J., Jiang, Z., Zhang, X., & Meng, F. (2025). The Application of Multifunctional Metal–Organic Frameworks for the Detection, Adsorption, and Degradation of Contaminants in an Aquatic Environment. Molecules, 30(6), 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061336

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop