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Article

Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L.

by
Khalil Guelifet
1,
Khaled Kherraz
2,
Mohammed Messaoudi
1,*,
Mohamed Amine Ferhat
1,
Latifa Khattabi
3,
Khadra Afaf Bendrihem
4,
Wafa Zahnit
5,
Dalila Addad
4,
Mokhtar Benmohamed
6,
Yacine Azoudj
7,
Lilya Harchaoui
8,
Khaled Aggoun
9,
Abdenour Boumechhour
10 and
Luca Rastrelli
11,12,*
1
Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Produits Bioactifs et Valorisation de la Biomasse, Département de Chimie, ENS Vieux-Kouba Alger, Algiers 16050, Algeria
2
Laboratoire d’Ethnobotanique et Substances Naturelles, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Vieux-Kouba Algiers, Algiers 16050, Algeria
3
Biotechnology Research Center (CRBt), Constantine 25016, Algeria
4
Biotechnology, Water, Environment and Health Laboratory, Faculty of Natural and Life Sciences, University of Abbes Laghrour, Khenchela 40000, Algeria
5
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Ferhat ABBAS Setif 1, El Bez 19000, Algeria
6
Laboratory of Fundamental Sciences, University Amar Télidji of Laghouat, P.O. Box. 37G, Road of Ghardaïa, Laghouat 03000, Algeria
7
Centre de Recherche Scientifique et Technique en Analyse Physico-Chimiques (CRAPC), Zone Industrielle Bou-Ismail RP, P.O. Box. 384, Tipazan 42004, Algeria
8
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene, Algiers 16111, Algeria
9
Laboratory of Organic Materials and Heterochemistry, Echahid Cheikh Larbi Tebessi University, Constantine Road, Tebessa 12002, Algeria
10
Centre for Scientific and Technical Research in Analysis Physico-Chemicals (CRAPC), Algiers 16111, Algeria
11
Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy
12
National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), 90133 Palermo, Italy
 
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*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2025, 30(21), 4258; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30214258
Submission received: 20 September 2025 / Revised: 25 October 2025 / Accepted: 28 October 2025 / Published: 31 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oils—Third Edition)
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Abstract

This study investigated the impact of harvest season and extraction method on the yield, composition, and bioactivity of essential oils (EOs) from wild Rosmarinus officinalis L. plants collected in Algeria. Oils were obtained by hydro distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), and microwave-assisted distillation (MD) across four seasons and characterized by GC–MS. Camphor, α-pinene, camphene, and 1,8-cineole were consistently dominant, with spring oils, particularly those extracted by microwave-assisted distillation, showing the highest enrichment in oxygenated monoterpenes (up to 59.6%). Functional assays revealed clear seasonal variation, whereas spring oils exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity, with a FRAP value of 4.63 µg/mL, approaching that of the synthetic standard BHA (6.89 µg/mL), alongside notable anti-inflammatory effects. Antimicrobial screening indicated selective inhibition of Escherichia coli and Candida albicans, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis remained resistant. Acute toxicity evaluation confirmed safety at 2000 mg/kg. These findings demonstrate that ecological timing and extraction strategy critically determine rosemary EO properties and establish quantitative benchmarks for their pharmaceutical and industrial valorization.
Keywords: Rosmarinus officinalis L.; essential oils; harvest season; chemical composition; biological properties; seasonal variability; GC-MS analysis; extraction methods Rosmarinus officinalis L.; essential oils; harvest season; chemical composition; biological properties; seasonal variability; GC-MS analysis; extraction methods

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Guelifet, K.; Kherraz, K.; Messaoudi, M.; Ferhat, M.A.; Khattabi, L.; Bendrihem, K.A.; Zahnit, W.; Addad, D.; Benmohamed, M.; Azoudj, Y.; et al. Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L. Molecules 2025, 30, 4258. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30214258

AMA Style

Guelifet K, Kherraz K, Messaoudi M, Ferhat MA, Khattabi L, Bendrihem KA, Zahnit W, Addad D, Benmohamed M, Azoudj Y, et al. Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L. Molecules. 2025; 30(21):4258. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30214258

Chicago/Turabian Style

Guelifet, Khalil, Khaled Kherraz, Mohammed Messaoudi, Mohamed Amine Ferhat, Latifa Khattabi, Khadra Afaf Bendrihem, Wafa Zahnit, Dalila Addad, Mokhtar Benmohamed, Yacine Azoudj, and et al. 2025. "Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L." Molecules 30, no. 21: 4258. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30214258

APA Style

Guelifet, K., Kherraz, K., Messaoudi, M., Ferhat, M. A., Khattabi, L., Bendrihem, K. A., Zahnit, W., Addad, D., Benmohamed, M., Azoudj, Y., Harchaoui, L., Aggoun, K., Boumechhour, A., & Rastrelli, L. (2025). Seasonal and Extraction-Dependent Variation in the Composition and Bioactivity of Essential Oils from Wild Rosmarinus officinalis L. Molecules, 30(21), 4258. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30214258

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