Pickering Emulsions Based in Inorganic Solid Particles: From Product Development to Food Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction to Pickering Emulsions
2. Mechanisms and Parameters Influencing Pickering Emulsion Stability
2.1. Pickering Emulsion Formation Mechanism
2.2. Pickering Emulsion Parameters—Particle Properties
2.2.1. Particle Wettability
2.2.2. Solid Particle Concentration
2.2.3. Particle Size
2.2.4. Particle Shape
2.3. Pickering Emulsion Parameters—Aqueous Phase Properties
2.4. Pickering Emulsion Parameters—Oil Phase Properties
3. Inorganic Solid Particles as Pickering Stabilisers
3.1. Types of Inorganic Solid Particles
3.2. Hydroxyapatite as Pickering Stabiliser
4. Preparation of Pickering Emulsions—Production Processes
4.1. High-Shear Mixers
4.2. Ultrasonic Homogeniser
4.3. High-Pressure Homogeniser
4.4. Microfluidizers
4.5. Membrane Homogeniser
4.6. Static Mixers
5. Pickering Emulsions for Food Applications
5.1. Emulsifier Substitution in Food
5.2. Fat Reduction or Substitution
5.3. Encapsulation of Active Compounds and Development of Functional Foods
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Particle Characterisation | Emulsion Characterisation | Production | Ref. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Solid Particle | Surface Modification | Shape | Size | Water Phase | Oil Phase | Emulsion Type | Homogeniser | Rate Time Pressure Cycles | |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 30 nm | Water | Tricaprylin | O/W | Microfluidizer | n.d. | [89] |
Silica | Lecithin or oleylamine | Spherical | 7 nm | Water | Miglyol | O/W | High-pressure | 500 1000 bar 5 cycles | [90] |
Silica | Monoolein | Spherical | 150 nm | Water | Vegetable oil | O/W | High-shear | 8000 rpm 5 min | [91] |
Silica | Sodium dodecyl sulphate | Spherical | 12 nm | Water | n-dodecane | O/W | Rotor-stator | 13,000 rpm 2 min | [92] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 80 nm or 800 nm | Water | Ethyl acetate | O/W | XME; RME | n.a. | [59] |
Silica | Tween 60; sodium caseinate; lecithin | Spherical | 150 nm | Water | Vegetable oil | O/W | High-shear | 8000 rpm 5 min | [83,93] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 145 nm | Water | Hexadecane | O/W | Hand shaking | n.a. | [94] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 100 nm | Water | Toluene | O/W | Ultrasonic | 40% amplitude | [56] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 12 nm or 200 nm | Water | Corn oil | O/W | High-pressure | 350–1000 bar 1 cycle | [60] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 12 nm | Water | Sunflower oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 7 min | [95] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 800 nm | Water | Tricaprylin oil | O/W | RME | n.a. | [96] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 10–12 nm | Water | Tricaprylin oil | O/W | SCME | n.a. | [97] |
Silica | n.a. | Spherical | 15 nm | Water | n-dodecane | O/W | Rotor-stator | 13,000 rpm 3 min | [98] |
Silica | n.a. | n.d. | 8 nm | Water | Canola oil | O/W | High-pressure | 600 bar 3 cycles | [99] |
Silica | Sorbitan monooleate | Spherical | 12 nm | Water | Paraffin oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 25,000 rpm 5 min | [100] |
Silica | mPEG silanes; organosilanes | Spherical | 13–70 nm | Water | Exxsol D60 | O/W; W/O | Rotor-stator | 10,000–20,000 rpm 4 min | [44] |
Silica | Palmitic acid | Spherical | 15 nm | Water | Hexane | O/W | Rotor-stator | 10,000 rpm 10 min | [43] |
Silica | Oleic acid | Spherical | 5–10 nm | Water | Paraffin oil | O/W | Magnetic stirrer | 2500 rpm 2 min | [42] |
Silica | CTAB | Spherical | 20 nm | Water | n-dodecane | O/W | Rotor-stator | 7000 rpm 2 min | [101] |
Silica; hydroxyl methyl cellulose | Tween 20; whey protein | n.d. | n.d. | Water | Sunflower oil | O/W | RME | n.a. | [102] |
Silica + PS latex | SDS; HTAB; Tween 20 | n.d. | n.d. | Water | Paraffin oil; ethyl acetate; sunflower oil | O/W | XME; RME | n.a. | [103] |
Silica (1) or zirconia (2) | Dipropyl adipate | Spherical; n.d. | 5–30 nm (1); 5–10 nm (2) | Water | n-dodecane | O/W | Rotor-stator | 13,000 rpm 2 min | [104] |
Clay (1); silica (2); Fe2O3 (3); oleic acid-coated Fe2O3 (4); microgel (5) | n.a. | Platelets (1); spherical (2,3,4); microgel (5) | 1 × 30 nm (1); 5–30 nm (2); 5 nm (3,4); 220 nm (5) | Water | Styrene; toluene | W/O/W; O/W/O | Ultrasonic; Hand shaking | 2 min | [105] |
Silica/ chitosan | n.a. | n.d. | n.d. | Water | Sunflower oil; cocoa butter | W/O | Rotor-stator | 11,000 rpm 2 min | [84] |
Silica/ chitosan | n.a. | n.d. | n.d. | Water | Corn oil | O/W | High-pressure | 1380 bar 7 cycles 2760 bar 1 cycle | [106] |
Clay | SDS; DTAB; Pluronic | Spherical | 9–50 nm | Water | Mineral oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 11,000 rpm 5 min | [107] |
Calcium carbonate | n.a. | Cubic | ~1 µm | Buffer solution | Sunflower oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 6000 rpm 2 min | [108] |
Calcium carbonate | n.a. | Spherical; cubic; rod-like | ~5 µm | Water | Soybean oil | O/W | Hand shaking | 30 s | [33] |
Calcium carbonate | Fatty acids | Spherical | 80–100 nm | Water | Toluene | O/W; W/O | Rotor-stator | 5000 rpm 2 min | [47] |
Silicone resin | n.a. | Microbowl | 2–2.5 µm | Water | n-dodecane | O/W | Vortex mixer | n.d. 2 min | [64] |
Particle Characterisation | Emulsion Characterisation | Production | Use | Ref. | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Surface Modification | Shape | Size | Water Phase | Oil Phase | Emulsion Type | Homogenizer | Speed/Time Pressure/Cycles | ||
PCL * | Rod-like | 30 nm | Water | DCM | O/W | Rotor-stator | 20,500 rpm 1 min | PE stabilisation | [127] |
PCL * | Rod-like | 30 nm | Water | DCM | O/W | Rotor-stator | 14,500–30,000 rpm 1 min | PE stabilisation | [131] |
PCL * | Fibril | 23 × 140 nm | Water | DCM and DMF | W/O | Rotor-stator | 15,000 rpm n.d. | Scaffolds fabrication | [132] |
PCL * | Rod-like | 20–50 × 80–220 nm | Water | DCM | W/O | Vortex mixer | 3500 rpm n.d. | Scaffolds fabrication | [133] |
P(LLA/CL) * | Spherical | 50 nm | Water | DCM | O/W | Rotor-stator | 20,450 rpm 3 min | Scaffolds fabrication | [134] |
PLLA * | Spherical | 30–70 nm | Water | DCM | W/O | Rotor-stator | 12,000 rpm 1 min | Scaffolds fabrication | [135] |
Alginate + PLLA * | Spherical | 20–70 nm | Water | DCM | O/W | Rotor-stator | 12,000 rpm 1.5 min | Scaffolds fabrication | [136] |
Stearic acid + PLLA * | n.d. | n.d. | Water | DCM | O/W; W/O | Rotor-stator | 17,000 rpm 1 min | PE stabilisation | [137] |
PLLA * | n.d. | n.d. | Water | DCM | O/W; W/O | Rotor-stator | 200–20,000 rpm 0.2–3 min | PE stabilisation | [26] |
CTAB and PG + PLLA * | n.d. | 0.2–1.2 µm | Water | DCM | O/W | Ultrasonic | 250 W 5 min | PE stabilisation | [138] |
Stearic acid; PLLA + Span 80 * | n.d. | n.d. | Water | DCM | O/W; W/O | Rotor-stator | 10,000–20,000 rpm 0.5–4 min | PE stabilisation | [139] |
PS * | Spherical | 40 nm | Water | DCM | O/W | Vortex mixer | 3200 rpm 1 min | PE stabilisation | [27] |
Sodium oleate | Rod-like | 23 × 70 nm | Water | Cy | W/O; O/W | Ultrasonic | 300 W 6 cycles | PE stabilisation | [140] |
Stearic acid | n.d. | 30 nm | Water | n.d. | W/O | Magnetic stirrer | 12,000 rpm n.d. | PE stabilisation | [141] |
PMF | Spherical | 30–70 nm | Water | Artemisia argyi oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 10,000 rpm 2 min | PE stabilisation | [142] |
DBP | Rod-like | n.d. | Water | Hexanol | O/W | Ultrasonic | n.d. | Protocells fabrication | [143] |
n.a. | Rod-like | 50 nm | Water | Sunflower oil | O/W | Rotor-stator | 11,000 rpm 6 min | PE stabilisation | [25] |
n.a. | Rod-like | 50 nm | Water | Sunflower oil | O/W | NETmix | 200–500 Reynolds number 1–35 cycles | PE stabilisation | [144] |
n.a. | Rod-like | 50 nm | Water | Sunflower oil | O/W | NETmix | 300–400 Reynolds number 5–17 cycles | Vitamin E-loaded PE | [114] |
Sodium oleate | Rod-like | 50 nm | Water | Sunflower oil | W/O | Rotor-stator | 11,000 rpm 2 min | PE stabilisation | [48] |
Homogenizer Type | Throughput | Efficiency | Droplet Size | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Minimum | |||||
High-shear | Batch | Low | Rotation speed Emulsification time | 2 µm | Easy set-up Quick processes Low operating cost Small amounts of the liquids Different apparatus available | Particle disruption Temperature increase Broad droplet size Limited energy input |
Ultrasonic | Batch | Low | Ultrasound frequency Amplitude Emulsification time | 0.1 µm | Easy set-up Quick processes Small amounts of the liquids | Particle disruption Temperature increase Broad droplet size Probe degradation |
High-pressure | Batch or continuous | High | Pressure value Number of homogenizing cycles | 0.1 µm | Quick processes Narrow droplet size | Particle disruption Temperature increase High energy consumption Difficult to clean |
Membrane | Batch or continuous | Very high | Membrane pore size Injection rate Agitation speed | 0.3 µm | Particle integrity Temperature control Narrow droplet size Low energy consumption | Set-up Slow process Viscosity of the fluids |
Microfluidizers | Continuous | High | Flow rate Microchannel geometry Number of cycles Phase viscosities | 0.1 µm | Particle integrity Temperature control Droplet size control Narrow droplet size Multiple emulsion production Low energy consumption | Viscosity of the fluids Set-up Slow process |
Static mixers | Continuous | High | Flow rate Number of cycles | 0.3 µm | Particle integrity Mixing control Temperature control Droplet size control Low energy consumption | Viscosity of the fluids |
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Ribeiro, A.; Lopes, J.C.B.; Dias, M.M.; Barreiro, M.F. Pickering Emulsions Based in Inorganic Solid Particles: From Product Development to Food Applications. Molecules 2023, 28, 2504. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062504
Ribeiro A, Lopes JCB, Dias MM, Barreiro MF. Pickering Emulsions Based in Inorganic Solid Particles: From Product Development to Food Applications. Molecules. 2023; 28(6):2504. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062504
Chicago/Turabian StyleRibeiro, Andreia, José Carlos B. Lopes, Madalena M. Dias, and Maria Filomena Barreiro. 2023. "Pickering Emulsions Based in Inorganic Solid Particles: From Product Development to Food Applications" Molecules 28, no. 6: 2504. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062504