Next Article in Journal
Vibrational Study on Structure and Bioactivity of Protein Fibers Grafted with Phosphorylated Methacrylates
Next Article in Special Issue
Antimicrobial Activity and Synergy Investigation of Hypericum scabrum Essential Oil with Antifungal Drugs
Previous Article in Journal
An Insight into Geometries and Catalytic Applications of CeO2 from a DFT Outlook
Previous Article in Special Issue
Natural Polyphenols Inhibit the Dimerization of the SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease: The Case of Fortunellin and Its Structural Analogs
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 26
Issue 21
10.3390/molecules26216486
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

The Essential Oil-Bearing Plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): An Overview

by
Suzan Marwan Shahin
1,2,
Abdul Jaleel
1 and
Mohammed Abdul Muhsen Alyafei
1,*
1
Department of Integrative Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
2
Research and Development Head, Umm Al Quwain University, Umm Al Quwain 536, United Arab Emirates
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2021, 26(21), 6486; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216486
Submission received: 18 September 2021 / Revised: 10 October 2021 / Accepted: 18 October 2021 / Published: 27 October 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomolecules from Essential Oil Bearing Plants: Biological and Industrial Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Essential Oils (EOs) are expensive hydrocarbons produced exclusively by specific species in the plant kingdom. Their applications have deep roots in traditional herbal medicine, which lacks scientific evidence. Nowadays, more than ever, there is a growing global interest in research-based discoveries that maintain and promote health conditions. Consequently, EOs became a much attractive topic for both research and industry, with revenues reaching billions of dollars annually. In this work, we provide key guidance to all essential oil-bearing plants growing in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The comprehensive data were collected following an extensive, up-to-date literature review. The results identified 137 plant species, including indigenous and naturalized ones, in the UAE, citing over 180 published research articles. The general overview included plant botanical names, synonyms, common names (Arabic and English), families and taxonomic authority. The study acts as a baseline and accelerator for research, industry and discoveries in multiple disciplines relying on essential oil-bearing plants.

1. Introduction

Globally, the essential oils (EOs) industry creates billions of dollars of revenue annually. Therefore, more attention has been given recently to this sector, as a natural primary resource for phytochemicals. Indeed, the EOs industry has a wide range of enormous applications in various fields, such as pharmaceuticals, aromatherapy, healthcare, cosmetics, food flavoring, food preservation and the fragrance industry [1].
Briefly, EOs are concentrated phytochemicals comprised mostly of terpenes, oxygenated terpenes, sesquiterpenes and oxygenated sesquiterpenes [2,3]. EOs are volatiles associated with a characteristic aroma resulting from the complex interaction between hundreds of volatiles. These hydrophobic compounds are produced exclusively from certain plant species as secondary metabolites, acting as defense phytochemicals [4].
In fact, EOs applications have deep roots in old traditional practices, in which they were a natural resource to treat infections and sicknesses for hundreds of years [3,4]. However, such traditional practices lack scientific validation, and thus have to be remarkably studied and tested, looking for scientific justification. The studies about essential oils from UAE plants and their biological activities are scanty when compared to other research in plant-based fields. There are studies such as extraction of essential oil of Haplophyllum tuberculatum [5], Teucrium stocksianum [6], Pulicaria glutinosa [7], Cleome amblyocarpa [4] and Moringa peregrina [8] from the United Arab Emirates.
The main objective of this work is to provide key guidance to all EO-bearing plants indigenous and naturalized to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which included highlights on all available EO-bearing plant species, their families, botanical names, common names (Arabic and English) and taxonomic authority. It worth mentioning that this is the first record in the literature that provides the essential oil-bearing plants of the UAE. The value of such data will accelerate research, knowledge and discoveries in multiple disciplines (e.g., environment, biology, chemistry, chemical engineering, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and healthcare). The findings are key knowledge to justify the rich ethnomedicinal applications of the aromatic medicinal plants of the UAE. Additionally, this study will be supportive to decision-makers in strategic and sustainable planning for essential oil-bearing plants of the region.

2. Study Location

This work covered the UAE as a study location (land area of around 82,880 km2), which is located in the arid Western parts of Asia at the southeast end of the Arabian Peninsula on the Arabian/Persian Gulf (Latitude 22°30′ and 26°10′ N and longitude 51° and 56°25′ E).

Weather Conditions and Soil Analysis

The study location belongs to the arid zone; the climate is characterized by high summer temperatures (around 46 °C) and high humidity rates along the two coastal lines. It is characterized by a low and irregular precipitation rate (60 to 160 mm) [9].
The soil is classified as sandy sodic soil with a high permeability rate, low water holding capacity, low moisture content and low fertility rate [9,10]. Soil salinity is one of its major problems, especially in the coastal lines [11].
Conventional surface water resources include seasonal floods, springs and Falajes. The only groundwater resource comes from aquifers [12]. The high dependency on groundwater aquifers with low recharging rates causes both groundwater depletion and saline water intrusion, creating concerns that aquifer supplies may soon be depleted [13] and indicating a challenging future for the sustainability of the agricultural sector [12].

3. Data Collection Methodologies

To best of our knowledge, all existed references “online and hardcopy printed sources” related to the UAE flora were reviewed to collect the botanical names of all the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants, which were around 800 plant species. The references included Batanouny [14], Western [15], Tanira et al., [16], Wasfi [17], Karim [18], Emirates Natural History Group [19], Böer and Chaudhary [20], Jongbloed et al., [21], Brown and Sakkir [22], Aspinall [23], Zayed Complex for Herbal Research and Traditional Medicine (ZCHRTM) [24], Handa et al., [25], Karim and Dakheel [26], Mousa and Fawzi [27], Sakkir et al., [28], Fawzi and Ksiksi [29], Hurriez [30], Feulner [31], El-Keblawy et al., [32] and the Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi [33,34].
After collecting the botanical names and synonyms of all documented Emirati indigenous and naturalized plants, each plant was subjected individually to an extensive literature review. The literature was collected using the online resource “Google Scholar”, in which all the published works indexed in “Scopus”, “Web of Science” and “PubMed”. Each plant was searched individually using the keywords “botanical name/synonyms + essential oil”. To the best of our knowledge, all existed published articles were carefully screened and over 180 of the latest articles were cited.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1. A Comprehensive Overview

All the indigenous and naturalized plants of the study location were evaluated and the result was establishing a full list of all Emirati EO-bearing plants (Table 1), including an overview of 137 Emirati EO-bearing plants belonging to 46 families, all cited based on up-to-date literature (over 180 references). Meaning that, EO-bearing plants comprise 17% of the estimated 800 indigenous and naturalized plants.
According to Raut and Karuppayil [185] there are around 2000 identified EO-bearing plants globally. Therefore, it is of high value that a country (with estimated 83 km2 land area and with limited freshwater resources) includes 137 EO-bearing plants. It is worth mentioning that although some of the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants have rich traditional therapeutic applications and belong to important medicinal families, there are no data yet available related to the potential of their EOs. Therefore, it is expected that many of the medicinal and aromatic plants that are available locally are not investigated yet, and the true estimation of the Emirati EO-bearing plants could be underestimated. Examples of these species include, Amaranthus graecizans and Amaranthus viridis from the Amaranthaceae family, which were used in the past by the Bedouin people of the UAE to treat scorpion stings, snake bites and itchy skin rashes as reported by Sakkir et al. [28].
An overview of all EO-bearing plant families growing in the United Arab Emirates, their species number, natural habitats, potential plant parts and ecological status are illustrated in Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4. Based on our results, the families that include the highest number of EO-bearing species are Asteraceae, (22 plants, 16.2%), Fabaceae (11 plants, 8.1%), Lamiaceae (11 plants, 8.1%), Brassicaceae (9 plants, 6.6%), Apiaceae (7 plants, 5.1%) and Poaceae (7 plants, 5.1%), respectively, as shown in Figure 1.
Generally, the most important habitats are the plantations, farmlands and irrigated lands, which host 50% of the Emirati EO-bearing plants. Meanwhile, the most important natural habitats are mountains and rocky terrain, wadis, sandy dunes and coastal saline lines, hosting 36.3, 24.4, 15.5 and 14.8% of the total EO-bearing plants growing in the United Arab Emirates, respectively (Figure 2).
Since plantations and farmlands are hosting 50% of the Emirati EO-bearing plants (which could be due to their ornamental or food production value, or just available naturally as weeds due to the accessibility of water), there should be educational campaigns to educate landlords about extra potentials and economic benefits related to EOs of their available indigenous plants. In addition, with the sharp population growth and the current expansion in the industrial and urbanization activities, strong efforts should be invested to conserve the natural habitats of the EO-bearing plants (e.g., mountains, wadis), and take the same into consideration in strategic planning and management.
Based on our results, shoots (particularly leaves and flowers) are the most important parts that have potential for EOs, in which, 56.3, 37.8 and 29.6% of the Emirati-EO-bearing plants have the potential to extract EOs from their shoots, leaves and flowers, respectively (Figure 3).
Our results show that 82% of the status of the Emirati EO-bearing plants are reported as least concerned plants (low risks of becoming endangered), as shown in Figure 4. However, since recent references that report the status of indigenous plants are limited, and taking into consideration that status of 10% of the plants are not yet evaluated, their real status could be underestimated, especially with the current population growth and urbanization activities.

4.2. A Detailed Overview

A detailed view on the results of the top three richest families (based on the number of EO-bearing species) is divided into three table groups (Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10). The first group represents the general botanical information related to the plant species, including form, life form, life cycle, economic value and folk medicine/applications, internationally and locally (Table 2, Table 5 and Table 8). The second group illustrates the data related to the plants’ natural habitats in the UAE, including important locations, soil, habitats, flowering period and wildlife status (Table 3, Table 6 and Table 9). The third group shows detailed knowledge related to plants’ EOs, including potential plant parts, yields, extraction methods, main chemical groups/constituents and biological activities (Table 4, Table 7 and Table 10).
The results of the top three richest families, based on the number of their species, are illustrated from Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10, including Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae.
The results showed that the taxa of all the UAE EO-bearing plants belongs to the dicotyledon group, except taxa of 15 plants that belong to the monocotyledon group: Phoenix dactylifera, Cyperus arenarius, Cyperus conglomeratus, Cyperus rotundus, Gynandriris sisyrinchium, Dipcadi erythraeum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya bipinnata, Lolium rigidum, Cymbopogon commutatus, Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Alpinia galangal, Zingiber officinale.
According to our extensive literature review, the Iranian plants show the highest number of publications in the field of EO research. Other important plants’ countries of origin in conducting EOs research include India, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Nigeria, Jordan and Pakistan.
On the other hand, there are only a few publications that studied the EO-bearing plants of the UAE. Examples of such studies are mainly by Al Yousuf et al. [7], who studied the EO of Pulicaria glutinosa grown in Jebal Al Faya, and Al Yousuf et al., [6] who studied Teucrium stocksianum grown in Khor Fakkan. Additional research studied EOs of Haplophyllum tuberculatum for plants also grown in Khor Fakkan [5]. Al-Marzouqi et al., [130] studied EO of Menthe spicata collected from different regions in the UAE.
Based on the above, there is scarcity in research performed on the EO-bearing plants of the UAE. This is the case while the country has rich biodiversity and has rich traditional medicine applications [16,17,28]. In addition, according to Sakkir et al., [28] 37% of the UAE medicinal plants are applied topically to treat skin problems. This is a direct/indirect indication that the UAE is a good niche for EO phytochemicals of healing benefits. Consequently, it is highly recommended to invest more efforts to study the local EO-bearing plants, seeking new natural resources of phytochemicals of proven biological activity to the country and the world.
Actually, our established databank of the UAE EO-bearing plants offers a solid background to take quick decisions in plant selection and to start up an innovative EOs-based research pathway, which can lead to new chemotypes and promising discoveries. Besides, the databank provides the interested parties (from academic and industrial fields) the opportunity to have an overview on all the Emirati EO-bearing plants, enabling them to highlight the most important indigenous species to supply their needs according to field of interest. At the same time, the databank lists all the UAE EO-bearing plants that need to be conserved from decision-makers to guarantee a sustainable future for the next generation.
It worth mentioning that rich traditional practices are linked (directly or indirectly) to the availability of EOs as active components that lead to particular biological activities of great healing benefits. Additionally, it was reported by a study conducted by Sakkir et al., [28] from the Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD) that 37% of the indigenous plants have been used to treat skin problems in the traditional medicine of the UAE. Which can be linked, in one way or another, to the presence of therapeutic grade EO, and therefore could be a positive indicator that the flora of the UAE could pose an excellent resource for EO phytochemicals of various industrial applications.
Thus, it is fundamental to create a comprehensive reference that includes all the UAE indigenous and naturalized species capable of producing EOs. Focusing on the significant role of such a natural resource in a region where fresh water is expensive and where the country’s leadership is working on diversifying the economic resources.
Indeed, it is expected that the essential oil of many indigenous and naturalized medicinal and aromatic plants has not been investigated yet, and the true estimation of the EO-bearing plants growing in the country could be higher than the current findings of this study. Examples of these species include, Amaranthus graecizans and Amaranthus viridis from the Amaranthaceae family, which were used in the past by Bedouin people of UAE to treat scorpion stings, snake bites and itchy skin rashes as reported by Sakkir et al., [28].
According to published research by Shahin et al., [4], the essential oil of the indigenous medicinal Cleome amblyocarpa was extracted and studied for the first time, declaring positive antioxidant activities. Recently, another study extracted essential oil from the seeds of Moringa peregrina and evaluated its chemical composition and antioxidant potentials [8]. Therefore, it is expected that similar results can be found while studying other medicinal and aromatic indigenous species.

4.3. List of Abbreviations

This section provided the meaning and description of all the abbreviations that were used to construct the tables of the UAE (native and naturalized) EO-bearing plants (Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9 and Table 10).
  • Botanical Name: Syn. “Synonyms”; Eng. “English”; Arb. “Arabic”.
  • Form: Vine “V”; Grass “G”; Weed “W”; Forb “F”; Herb “H”; Shrub “S”; Tree “T”.
  • Life Form: Geophyte “Ge”; Phanerophyte “Ph”; Chamaephyte “Ch”; Hemicryptophyte “He”; Therophyte “Th”; Cryptophyte “Cr”; Neophyte “Na”.
  • Life Cycle: Annual “A”; Biennial “B”; Perennial “P”.
  • Economic Value: Medicine and/or Folk Medicine “Med”; Food “Fod”; Nutrition “Nutr”; Food Preservation “FPre”; Flavoring “Flav”; Food Aroma “FArom”; Forage “Forg”; Aromatic “Arom”; Essential Oils “EOs”; Cosmetic “Cosm”; Biofuel “Biof”; Fuel “Fuel”; Cleaning and Hygiene “Clea”; Insecticides “Insec”; Ecological “Eco”; Landscaping “Lands”; Other “Oth”: (Dye, Constructions, Household items, Cushions, Fibers, Sponges, Tobacco, Honey Production, Soil Amendment).
  • Folk Medicine:
(Application: yes “+”, no “.”) (Country: Applications examples + Plant parts)
Plants’ part abbreviations: Leaves “L”; Stems and twigs “St”; Pods “Pd”; Buds “Bd”; Bark “Bk”; Flowers “Fl”; Shoots and Aerial parts “Sh”; Fruits “Fr”; Seeds “Se”; Whole Plant “W”).
  • Emirates: Abu Dhabi “AD”; Dubai “Du”; Sharjah “S”; Fujairah “F”; Ajman “A”; Ras Al Khaimah “RAK”; Umm Al Quwain “UAQ”.
  • Important Locations: Al Ain “Ain”; Khor Kalba “K”; Khor Fakkan “KF”; Hajar Mountains “HM”; Ru’us Al-Jibal “RA”; Jebel Hafit “JH”; Wadi Jeema”J”; Hatta “H”; Wadi Lakayyam “WL”; Along the Country “AC”; Country Center “CC”; East Emirates “EE”; North Emirates “NE”; Coasts of North Emirates “CN”; Eastern Coast “EC”; Western coast “WC”; Scattered Locations “SL”
  • Soil: Sand “San”; Silt “Sil”; Rocky or Gravel “Roc”; Saline “Sal”.
  • Habitats: Oasis “Oas”; Sand Dunes “Dun”; Coasts “Cos”; Roadsides “Rod”; Offshore Islands “Off”; Inland Water Habitats “Wat”; Plantations and Farmlands and Irrigated Lands “Plat”; Hillsides “Hil”; Disturbed Sites “DS”; Alluvial and Interdunal Plains “Apl”; Wadis “Wad”; Gardens “Gar”; Fallow Fields and Plains “FF”; Cliffs “Cli”; Mountains and Rocky terrains “Mou”; Plateaux “PX”; Wastelands and Abandoned Fields “AF”; Urban areas “Urb”.
  • Flowering: Months’ abbreviations will be used.
  • Wildlife Status: Fairly common and locally abundant “FC”; Common and widespread locally “CO”; Not common “NC”; Rare and vulnerable “RA”; Not evaluated “NE”; Cultivated Plant “C”.
  • Plant Part: Potential for EOs (Roots “R”; Rhizomes “Rz”; Tuber “Tu”; Leaves “L”; Stems and twigs “St”; Pods “Pd”; Buds “Bd”; Bulbs “Bl”; Bark “Bk”; Flowers “Fl”; inflorescences “IF”; Shoots and Aerial parts “Sh”; Fruits “Fr”; Seeds “Se”; Whole Plant “W”).
  • Physical Properties: EOs physical characteristics (Color/Odor) Plant part + extraction method.
  • Yield (%): EO yield (%, v/w of dry weight). Supported with plant part and extraction method
  • Isolation Method: EO extraction method including:
Hydrodistillation “HD”; Steam Distillation “SD”; Dry Steam Distillation “DSD”; Microdistillation “MD”; Solid-Phase Microextraction “SPM”; Simultaneous Steam Distillation and Extraction “SDE”; Vacuum Distillation “VD”; Ligarine Extraction “LE”; Soxhelt Extraction “SH”; Headspace Analysis “H”; Gas Chromatography Flame Ionization Detector “GC-FID”; Supercritical CO2 Fluid Extraction “SFE”; Microwave-Assisted Hydrodistillation “MW”; Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction “SFME”; Tenax-Trapping “TT”.
  • Main Chemical Groups/Components:
(Main EOs Chemical Groups) and/or (Main/Potential Chemical Constituents) Plant part + extraction method.
  • Biological Activity: [EO Biological Activity] (Activity Details) Plant part + extraction method.
Antitumor “AT”; Antioxidant “AO”; Antifungal “AF”; Antibacterial “AB”; Antimicrobial “AM”; Antibiotic “OT”; Anti-inflammatory “AI”; Antianxiety “AA”; Mosquito Attractant/Repellent “MR”; Insecticidal and Pesticidal Activity “IS”; Larvicidal Activity “LA”; Nematicidal activity “NM”; Oviposition attractant/deterrent activity “OA”; Antihelminthic “Anthelmintic” effect “AH”; Antiechinococcal Activity “AE”; Fumigant Toxicity “FT”; Antidiabetic Activity “AD”; Antistreptococcal “AS”; Anticarcinogenic Effect “AC”; Cytotoxic Properties “CP”; Antimycotoxins “XN”; Phytotoxic Properties and Herbicidal Activity “PP”; Apoptotic Properties “AP”; Antimutagenic Properties “MP”; Analgesic properties “GP”; Antidepressant “DP”; Antispasmodics properties “ASP”; Antinociceptive activity “AN”; Antinociceptive Activity “CE”; Antiseptic “SP”; Stimulant “ST”; Antidiarrheal Activity “DR”.
  • General Notes: The use of “!” means information uncertainty.

4.4. Phytochemicals and Biological Activities from UAE Based Plants

Reviewing the literature, essential oils of the following six native/naturalized UAE plants were investigated under UAE climatic conditions, including Pulicaria glutinosa (Asteraceae) [7], Cleome amblyocarpa (Cleomaceae) [4], Mentha spicata (Lamiaceae) [130], Teucrium stocksianum (Lamiaceae) [6], Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Rutaceae) [5] and Moringa peregrine (Moringaceae) [8], with rich therapeutic applications for the last five species in folk medicine generally and the UAE traditional practices specifically. For example, infusion of C. amblyocarpa leaves was used to treat abdominal and rheumatic pain. M. spicata was used to promote general health-care benefits. Meanwhile, T. stocksianum has various applications related to kidney, stomach pains, thyroid problems and the common cold. The leaves of H. tuberculatum were used to treat scorpion stings, eaten as sedative and crushed in water and drunk to treat painful joints. In the UAE folk practices, the seeds’ oil of M. peregrine has been taken orally for constipation and stomach cramp, and the seeds’ oil mixture with clove oil and cardamom oil has been taken as a drink during labor. Besides, the seeds’ oily extract is used to treat headaches, fever, muscle pains, burns, abdominal pain and constipation. M. peregrine leaves’ extract can be rubbed on skin to treat a skin rash [22].
The rocky soils of the Hajar mountain are among the most famous places for P. glutinosa, T. stocksianum, H. tuberculatum and M. peregrine, including Khor Fakkan and Ru’us Al-Jibal for T. stocksianum and M. peregrine. While the sandy soils of the North Emirates of Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman and Umm Al Quwain are rich in C. amblyocarpa, the mountains, hillsides and wadis of Fujairah, Ras Al Khaimah, Sharjah and Abu Dhabi are rich places for H. tuberculatum [21]. The mint herb M. spicata is widely cultivated in farms for food production purposes, and contributes to the richest essential oils yield which is 10.90%, extracted from shoots using Supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) (Press: 350 bar, Temp: 50°C) [130]. While the essential oil average yields of the aerial parts of each of P. glutinosa, T. stocksianum, H. tuberculatum and C. amblyocarpa, were (according to the highest yield reported in the literature based on UAE) 0.5 [7], 0.34 [6], 0.04 [5] and 0.0266% [4], respectively. The essential oil seeds’ oil of M. peregrine extracted by hydrodistillation reported to be 0.22% [8].
A study of the phytochemicals showed that the major constituents of P. glutinosa essential oils extracted from aerial parts (including flowers) by steam distillation were p-elemene, 7-cadinol and a-cadinol (Sesquiterpenes) [7]. No studies were found to test the biological activities of the essential oil extracts for this shrub.
According to Shahin et al., [4], the major phytochemicals found for C. amblyocarpa essential oil (extracted by hydrodistillation from the whole herb) were isobornyl formate, tetrahydro-linalool acetate, neo-menthyl acetate, 1-dodecene and γ-elemene. The extract showed antioxidant activities (in vitro) using DPPH, FRAP and ABTS assays.
As reported by Al-Marzouqi et al., [130], the main chemical composition of M. spicata leaves’ essential oil (extracted by SCCO2) included carvone, a-pinene, limonene and linalool, which were significantly higher in the locally cultivated M. spicata in comparison to herbs imported from France, Syria and India. Although many studies in the literature reported the various biological activities of M. spicata (e.g., antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant, insecticidal and pesticidal, larvicidal activity, mosquito attractant/repellent and antimutagenic properties), however, no studies thus far have tested the biological activity of the oil for the herb cultivated under UAE climatic conditions.
According to Al Yousuf et al. [6], the oil of the aerial parts of T. stocksianum, collected from the UAE, was characterized by a-cadinol and 6-cadinene. Studies based on other countries reported the antinociceptive activity of the oil, with no studies found related to the biological activity of the oil based on the UAE.
Based on the research findings of Al Yousuf et al., [5], the oil extracted from the aerial parts of H. tuberculatum α-phellandrene (10.7–32.9%) being the major component and with significant amounts of other phytochemicals varied in existence and percentages according to the harvesting season. Such phytochemicals include β-caryophyllene, β-pinene, limonene, δ-3-carene, linalool, linalyl acetate, β-caryophyllene and α-terpineol. The biological studies related to H. tuberculatum carried out based on other countries reported that the oil exhibits various biological activities including antifungal, antibacterial, antimicrobial, mosquito attractant/repellent, insecticidal and pesticidal activity and larvicidal activity. On the other hand, no studies have been conducted yet to test these activities and others for the essential oil of this perennial herb grown under the UAE climate.
According to Senthilkumar et al. [8], the seeds’ oil of M. peregrine was characterized by the availability of geijerene (33.38%), linalool (23.36%), caryophyllene oxide (19.28%), n-hexadecane (12.59%) and carvacrol. The oil was found to be a potential alternative choice to the synthetic antioxidants, having radical scavenging activities including; DPPH• radical (IC50 = 37.70 μg/mL), ABTS•+ radical (IC50 = 34.03 μg/mL), superoxide anion (IC50 = 36.57 μg/mL), nitric oxide radical (IC50 = 29.15 μg/mL), hydrogen peroxide (IC50 = 43.93 μg/mL) and hydroxyl radical (IC50 = 29.99 μg/mL).
Studies of phytochemicals and biological studies provide scientific justification for the rich therapeutic applications of the previously mentioned native/naturalized plants in the UAE traditional practices. At the same time, it is obvious that there is a lack of essential oil studies based on the UAE, and more efforts are needed to investigate the phytochemicals and biological activities of oils extracted from locally grown and harvested native plants. Besides, comparative studies to compare the essential oil yield (quantitatively and qualitatively) for plants grown in the UAE and other countries are required. This is needed to highlight the native/naturalized plants of superior quality and biological activity, and utilize the same (after standardization) for commercial purposes in various industries (e.g., pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food preservatives, fragrance and flavor industries).

5. Obstacles and Difficulties

The greatest obstacles and difficulties that were faced are related to the scarcity of the references to UAE wildflowers (Shahin, 2018c). There is so much confusion in the literature between the botanical names and the synonyms, including spelling mistakes that make the task of data collection to list all the Emirati plants (followed by screening and listing the Emirati EO-bearing plants) a difficult and complicated mission.
For example, Cornulaca arabica Botsch and Cornulaca monacantha Delile were mentioned as two different species in the reference of Brown and Sakkir [22], while according to published study [21] Cornulaca arabica Botsch is a synonym of Cornulaca monacantha Delile. Besides, the plants Actiniopteris semiflabellata, Commicarpus boissieri and Cymbopogon jwarancusa were mentioned with minor spelling mistakes as Actioniopteris semiflabellata, Commicarpus boisieri and Cymbopogon jwarancuse, (respectively) in the textbook of Jongbloed et al., [21] which is one of the most important references of the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants.
Moreover, some publications use either the synonyms or the common names instead of using the botanical names. Therefore, while reviewing the literature using the formal botanical names (to screen the EO potential) no results will appear, although, in many cases the plant would be a rich resource of EO phytochemicals. For example, some publications will use Dipcadi serotinum, Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf. Heliotropium europaeum and Calligonum polygonoides instead of using the botanical names, which are Dipcadi erythraeum Webb and Berth., Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf., Heliotropium lasiocarpum and Calligonum comosum, respectively.

6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Based on our comprehensive and detailed screening of all the families of the UAE wildflowers, we concluded that there are at least 137 EO-bearing plants in the UAE (17% of the UAE wildflowers) belonging to 46 families. The top three richest families, based on the number of their species, are Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae.
Most of the UAE EO-bearing plants have rich traditional medicinal applications and other economic values, such as pharmaceuticals, nutrition, aromatherapy, fragrance and flavoring. Generally, the shoots (especially leaves and flowers) are the most important parts to extract EO phytochemicals (e.g., terpenoids) of valuable biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial and antitumor properties.
The UAE EO-bearing plants are widespread in the areas of plantations, mountains and wadis of the country. Serious efforts to educate landlords about the great value of the UAE EO-bearing plants are needed, to make sure that these expensive species are well-cultivated in a sustainable manner. Besides, strong efforts related to management and strategic planning should be employed to conserve the natural habitats of the EO-bearing plants.
All our obtained results support that the UAE is a rich natural resource for the native and naturalized EO-bearing plants that have rich ethnobotanical applications of multiple economic potential.
Therefore, serious efforts are needed to standardize the oil yield (quantitatively and qualitatively) for all listed essential oil-bearing plants of the UAE, and to focus sustainability on native essential oil-bearing plants of industrial applications at research and commercialization level. Taking into consideration that this field is promising for multiple research disciplines and discoveries.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and methodology, S.M.S.; validation, A.J. and M.A.M.A.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M.S.; writing—review and editing, A.J.; supervision, M.A.M.A. and A.J.; funding acquisition, M.A.M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by UAEU fund No. 31F029, (Ph.D. research grant).

Acknowledgments

We express our appreciation to David Allen from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for providing references related to UAE native plants. We are also thankful for the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment (MOCCAE)—UAE, for the invitation to participate in the Red List National Meeting (15–19 September 2019) and the possibility to exchange knowledge with knowledgeable researchers in the field of native plants (e.g., Gary R. Feulner, Ali El-Keblawy, and members of Sharjah Seed Bank). The support from Shyam S. Kurup, Department of Integrative Agriculture, CAVM, UAEU is gratefully acknowledged. In addition, many thanks to Al Foah Research Farm (Especially Arshed El Daly)—United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) for sharing knowledge related to native plants. Furthermore, we would like to thank Rahaf Ajaj (Abu Dhabi University) for her assistance in proofreading. This research was supported by the UAEU, College of Food and Agriculture, fund No. 31F029.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Baser, K.H.C.; Buchbauer, G. Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology, and Applications; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bakkali, F.; Averbeck, S.; Averbeck, D.; Idaomar, M. Biological effects of essential oils–A review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2008, 46, 446–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Shahin, S.M.; Salem, M.A. The innovative perspective of arid land agriculture: Essential oil-bearing plants as factories for a healthy and sustainable future. In Proceedings of the The Annual Meeting of Crop Science Society of America (CSSA), Synergy in Science: Partnering for Solutions, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 15–18 November 2015; ACSESS Digital Library: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  4. Shahin, S.M.; Kurup, S.; Cheruth, J.; Salem, M. Chemical composition of Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. essential oil under different irrigation levels in sandy soils with antioxidant activity. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2018, 21, 1235–1256. [Google Scholar]
  5. Al Yousuf, M.H.; Bashir, A.K.; Veres, K.; Dobos, Á.; Nagy, G.; Máthé, I.; Blunden, G.; Vera, J.R. Essential oil of Haplophyllum tuberculatum (Forssk.) A. Juss. from the United Arab Emirates. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2005, 17, 519–521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Al Yousuf, M.H.; Bashir, A.K.; Dobos, Á.; Veres, K.; Nagy, G.; Máthé, I.; Blunden, G. The composition of the essential oil of Teucrium stocksianum from the United Arab Emirates. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2002, 14, 47–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Al Yousuf, M.; Bashir, A.; Veres, K.; Dobos, A.; Nagy, G.; Mathe, I.; Blunden, G. Essential oil of Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. from the United Arab Emirates. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2001, 13, 454–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Senthilkumar, A.; Thangamani, A.; Karthishwaran, K.; Cheruth, A.J. Essential oil from the seeds of Moringa peregrina: Chemical composition and antioxidant potential. South Afr. J. Bot. 2020, 129, 100–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ajaj, R.; Shahin, S.; Salem, M. The challenges of climate change and food security in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): From deep understanding to quick actions. J. Curr. Nutr. Food Sci. 2018, 14, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Shahin, S.M.; Salem, M.A. Review future concerns on Irrigation requirements of date palm tree in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): Call for quick actions. In Proceedings of the 5th International Date Palm Conference, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 16–18 March 2014; pp. 255–262, ISBN 978-9948-22-868-4. [Google Scholar]
  11. Ajaj, R.; Shahin, S.; Kurup, S.; Cheruth, J.; Salem, M.A. Elemental fingerprint of agriculture soils of eastern region of the Arabian desert by ICP-OES with GIS mapping. J. Curr. Environ. Eng. 2018, 5, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Shahin, S.M.; Salem, M.A. The challenges of water scarcity and the future of food security in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Nat. Res. Cons. 2015, 3, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Mohamed, M.; Murad, A.; Chowdhury, R. Evaluation of groundwater quality in the eastern district of Abu Dhabi Emirate: UAE. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2017, 98, 385–391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Batanouny, K.H. Current knowledge of plant ecology in the Arab Gulf countries. Catena 1987, 14, 291–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Western, R.A. The Flora of the United Arab Emirates: An Introduction; United Arab Emirates University Publications: Al Ain, United Arab Emirates, 1989. [Google Scholar]
  16. Tanira, M.O.M.; Bashir, A.K.; Dib, R.; Goodwin, C.S.; Wasfi, I.A.; Banna, N.R. Antimicrobial and phytochemical screening of medicinal plants of the United Arab Emirates. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1994, 41, 201–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wasfi, I.A.; Bashir, A.K.; Abdalla, A.A.; Banna, N.R.; Tanira, M.O.M. Antiinflammatory activity of some medicinal plants of the United Arab Emirates. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1995, 33, 124–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Karim, F.M. Weeds in the United Arab Emirates; United Arab Emirates University Publications: Al Ain, United Arab Emirates, 1995. [Google Scholar]
  19. Emirates Natural History Group. Tribulus: Bulletin of the Emirates Natural History Group; AI lttihad Press and Printing Corporation: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 1997; Volume 7, pp. 1–32. [Google Scholar]
  20. Böer, B.; Chaudhary, S.A. New Records for the Flora of the United Arab Emirates. Willdenowia 1999, 29, 159–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Jongbloed, M.; Feulner, G.; Böer, B.; Western, A.R. The Comprehensive Guide to the Wild Flowers of the United Arab Emirates; Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  22. Brown, G.; Sakkir, S. The Vascular Plants of Abu Dhabi Emirate; Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2004. [Google Scholar]
  23. Aspinall, S. The Emirates: A Natural History; Trident Press Ltd.: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2005. [Google Scholar]
  24. ZCHRTM (Zayed complex for Herbal Research and Traditional Medicine). In Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants of UAE; General Authority for Health Services for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2005; Volume 1.
  25. Handa, S.S.; Rakesh, D.D.; Vasisht, K. Compendium of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Asia. ICS UNIDO Asia 2006, 2, 305. [Google Scholar]
  26. Karim, F.M.; Dakheel, A.J. Salt-Tolerant Plants of the United Arab Emirates; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  27. Mousa, M.; Fawzi, N. Vegetation analysis of Wadi Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. Acad. J. Plant Sci. 2009, 2, 9–15. [Google Scholar]
  28. Sakkir, S.; Kabshawi, M.; Mehairbi, M. Medicinal plants diversity and their conservation status in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). J. Med. Plant Res. 2012, 6, 1304–1322. [Google Scholar]
  29. Fawzi, N.; Ksiksi, T. Plant species diversity within an important United Arab Emirates ecosystem. Rev. Écol. 2013, 67, 25–36. [Google Scholar]
  30. Hurriez, S.H. Folklore and Folklife in the United Arab Emirates; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2013. [Google Scholar]
  31. Feulner, G.R. The Olive Highlands: A unique“ island” of biodiversity within the Hajar Mountains of the United Arab Emirates. Tribulus 2014, 22, 9–35. [Google Scholar]
  32. El-Keblawy, A.A.; Khedr, A.H.A.; Khafaga, T.A. Mountainous Landscape Vegetation and Species Composition at Wadi Helo: A Protected area in Hajar Mountains, UAE. Arid Land Res. Manag. 2016, 30, 389–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. EAD (Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi). Jewels of the UAE. 2017. Available online: http://www.arkive.org/uae/en/plants-and-algae (accessed on 1 April 2018).
  34. EAD (Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi). Grasses, Sedges and Rushes of the UAE; EAD (Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi): Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2019.
  35. Magwa, M.L.; Gundidza, M.; Gweru, N.; Humphrey, G. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oil from the leaves of Sesuvium portulacastrum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2006, 103, 85–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Srivastav, S.; Singh, P.; Mishra, G.; Jha, K.K.; Khosa, R.L. Achyranthes aspera—An important medicinal plant: A review. J. Nat. Prod. Plant Res. 2011, 1, 1–14. [Google Scholar]
  37. Samejo, M.Q.; Memon, S.; Bhanger, M.I.; Khan, K.M. Chemical compositions of the essential oil of Aerva javanica leaves and stems. Pak. J. Anal. Environ. Chem. 2012, 13, 48–52. [Google Scholar]
  38. Samejo, M.Q.; Memon, S.; Bhanger, M.I.; Khan, K.M. Comparison of chemical composition of Aerva javanica seed essential oils obtained by different extraction methods. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci. 2013, 26, 757–760. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  39. Khomarlou, N.; Aberoomand-Azar, P.; Lashgari, A.P.; Tebyanian, H.; Hakakian, A.; Ranjbar, R.; Ayatollahi, S.A. Essential oil composition and in vitro antibacterial activity of Chenopodium album subsp. striatum. Acta Biol. Hung. 2018, 69, 144–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Taghizadeh, S.F.; Davarynejad, G.; Asili, J.; Riahi-Zanjani, B.; Nemati, S.H.; Karimi, G. Chemical composition, antibacterial, antioxidant and cytotoxic evaluation of the essential oil from pistachio (Pistacia khinjuk) hull. Microb. Pathog. 2018, 124, 76–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Al-Snafi, A.E. Chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Ammi majus and Ammi visnaga. A review. Int. J. Pharm. Ind. Res. 2013, 3, 257–265. [Google Scholar]
  42. Kazemi, M. Phenolic profile, antioxidant capacity and anti-inflammatory activity of Anethum graveolens L. essential oil. Nat. Prod. Res. 2015, 29, 551–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Shahabipour, S.; Firuzi, O.; Asadollahi, M.; Faghihmirzaei, E.; Javidnia, K. Essential oil composition and cytotoxic activity of Ducrosia anethifolia and Ducrosia flabellifolia from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2013, 25, 160–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Oran, S.A.; Al-Eisawi, D.M. Medicinal plants in the high mountains of northern Jordan. Int. J. Biodiv. Cons. 2014, 6, 436–443. [Google Scholar]
  45. Askari, F.; Sefidkon, F.; Teymouri, M.; Yousef, N. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Pimpinella puberula (DC.) Boiss. J. Agr. Sci. Tech. 2009, 11, 431–438. [Google Scholar]
  46. Radulović, N.S.; Mladenović, M.Z.; Stojanović-Radić, Z.Z. Synthesis of small libraries of natural products: New esters of long-chain alcohols from the essential oil of Scandix pecten-veneris L. (Apiaceae). Flavour Fragr. J. 2014, 29, 255–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Saeed, N.; Khan, M.R.; Shabbir, M. Antioxidant activity, total phenolic and total flavonoid contents of whole plant extracts Torilis leptophylla L. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2012, 12, 221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Derwich, E.; Benziane, Z.; Boukir, A. Antibacterial activity and chemical composition of the essential oil from flowers of Nerium oleander. Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 9, 1074–1084. [Google Scholar]
  49. Lawal, O.A.; Ogunwande, I.A.; Opoku, A.R. Chemical composition of essential oils of Plumeria rubra L. grown in Nigeria. Eur. J. Med. Plants. 2015, 6, 55–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Al-Rowaily, S.L.; Abd-ElGawad, A.M.; Assaeed, A.M.; Elgamal, A.M.; Gendy, A.E.N.G.E.; Mohamed, T.A.; Dar, B.A.; Mohamed, T.K.; Elshamy, A.I. Essential Oil of Calotropis procera: Comparative Chemical Profiles, Antimicrobial Activity, and Allelopathic Potential on Weeds. Molecules 2020, 25, 5203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Atghaei, M.; Sefidkon, F.; Darini, A.; Sadeghzadeh Hemayati, S.; Abdossi, V. Essential Oil Content and Composition of the Spathe in Some Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Varieties in Iran. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2020, 23, 292–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Zebarjad, Z.; Farjam, M.H. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of essential oils from different parts of Anthemis odontostephana Boiss. Var. odontostephana. Int. J. Pharm. Phytochem. Res. 2015, 7, 579–584. [Google Scholar]
  53. Tabari, M.A.; Youssefi, M.R.; Benelli, G. Eco-friendly control of the poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (Dermanyssidae), using the α-thujone-rich essential oil of Artemisia sieberi (Asteraceae): Toxic and repellent potential. Parasitol. Res. 2017, 116, 1545–1551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Ercetin, T.; Senol, F.S.; Orhan, I.E.; Toker, G. Comparative assessment of antioxidant and cholinesterase inhibitory properties of the marigold extracts from Calendula arvensis L. and Calendula officinalis L. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 36, 203–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Haghi, G.; Arshi, R.; Ghazian, F.; Hosseini, H. Chemical composition of essential oil of aerial parts of Cichorium intybus L. from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2012, 15, 213–216. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Cheng, X.R.; Thabit, R.A.; Wang, W.; Shi, H.W.; Shi, Y.H.; Le, G.W. Analysis and comparison of the essential oil in Conyza bonariensis grown in Yemen and China. Prog. Mod. Biomed. 2013, 36, 7034–7038. [Google Scholar]
  57. Chang, K.M.; Kim, G.H. Constituents of the Essential Oil from Eclipta prostrata L. Prev. Nutr. Food Sci. 2009, 14, 168–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  58. Rustaiyan, A.; Azar, P.A.; Moradalizadeh, M.; Masoudi, S.; Ameri, N. Volatile constituents of three compositae herbs: Anthemis altissima L. var. altissima Conyza Canadensis (L.) Cronq. and Grantina aucheri Boiss. Growing Wild in Iran. J. Essen. Oil Res. 2004, 16, 579–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Al-Mahrezi, J.A.; Al-Sabahi, J.N.; Akhtar, M.S.; Selim, D.; Weli, A.M. Essential oil composition and antimicrobial screening of Launaea nudicaulis grown in Oman. Int. J Pharm. Sci. Res. 2011, 2, 3166. [Google Scholar]
  60. Saleem, M.; Parveen, S.; Riaz, N.; Tahir, M.N.; Ashraf, M.; Afzal, I.; Jabbar, A. New bioactive natural products from Launaea nudicaulis. Phytochem. Lett. 2012, 5, 793–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Siddiqui, N.A. Chemical constituents of essential oil from flowers of Matricaria aurea grown in Saudi Arabia. Indian J. Drugs 2014, 2, 164–168. [Google Scholar]
  62. Karam, T.K.; Ortega, S.; Nakamura, T.U.; Auzély-Velty, R.; Nakamura, C.V. Development of chitosan nanocapsules containing essential oil of Matricaria chamomilla L. for the treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 162, 199–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Amin, A.; Mousa, M. Merits of anti-cancer plants from the Arabian Gulf region. Can. Ther. 2007, 5, 55–66. [Google Scholar]
  64. Suliman, F.E.O.; Fatope, M.O.; Al-Saidi, S.H.; Al-Kindy, S.M.; Marwah, R.G. Composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Pluchea arabica from Oman. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 469–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. El-Ghorab, A.H.; Ramadan, M.M.; El-Moez, S.I.A.; Soliman, A.M.M. Essential oil, antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activities of Egyptian Pluchea dioscoridis extract. Res. J. Pharm. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2015, 6, 1255–1265. [Google Scholar]
  66. Goyal, P.K.; Aggarwal, R.R. A Review on Phytochemical and biological investigation of plant genus Pluchea. Indo Am. J. Pharm. Res. 2013, 3, 3000–3007. [Google Scholar]
  67. Demirci, B.; Baser, K.H.; Duman, H. The essential oil composition of Gnaphalium luteo-album. Chem. Nat. Comp. 2009, 45, 446–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Djermane, N.; Gherraf, N.; Arhad, R.; Zellagui, A.; Rebbas, K. Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the essential oil of Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass. Pharm. Lett. 2016, 8, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  69. Al-Hajj, N.Q.M.; Wang, H.; Gasmalla, M.A.; Ma, C.; Thabit, R.; Rahman, M.R.T.; Tang, Y. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oil of Pulicaria inuloides. J. Food Nut. Res. 2014, 2, 221–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  70. Al-Hajj, N.Q.M.; Ma, C.; Thabit, R.; Gasmalla, M.A.; Musa, A.; Aboshora, W.; Wang, H. Chemical composition of essential oil and mineral contents of Pulicaria inuloides. J. Acad. Ind. Res. 2014, 2, 675–678. [Google Scholar]
  71. Al-Hajj, N.Q.M.; Algabr, M.N.; Omar, K.A.; Wang, H. Anticancer, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oils of Some Aromatic Medicinal Plants (Pulicaria inuloides-Asteraceae). J. Food Nutr. Res. 2017, 5, 490–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  72. Boumaraf, M.; Mekkiou, R.; Benyahia, S.; Chalchat, J.C.; Chalard, P.; Benayache, F.; Benayache, S. Essential oil composition of Pulicaria undulata (L.) DC. (Asteraceae) growing in Algeria. Int. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. Res. 2016, 8, 746–749. [Google Scholar]
  73. Demirci, B.; Yusufoglu, H.S.; Tabanca, N.; Temel, H.E.; Bernier, U.R.; Agramonte, N.M.; Alqasoumi, S.I.; Al-Rehaily, A.J.; Başer, K.H.C.; Demirci, F. Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. essential oil: Chemical composition and antimicrobial, insect-repellent and anticholinesterase activities. Saudi Pharm. J. 2017, 25, 703–708. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  74. Basaid, K.; Bouharroud, R.; Furze, J.N.; Benjlil, H.; de Oliveira, A.L.; Chebli, B. Biopesticidal value of Senecio glaucus subsp. coronopifolius essential oil against pathogenic fungi, nematodes, and mites. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 27, 3082–3090. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Belhattab, R.; Amor, L.; Barroso, J.G.; Pedro, L.G.; Figueiredo, A.C. Essential oil from Artemisia herba-alba Asso grown wild in Algeria: Variability assessment and comparison with an updated literature survey. Arab. J. Chem. 2014, 7, 243–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  76. Mokhtar, M.M.; Shaban, H.M.; Hegazy, M.E.A.F.; Ali, S.S. Evaluating the potential cancer chemopreventive efficacy of two different solvent extracts of Seriphidium herba-alba in vitro. Bull. Fac. Pharm. Cairo Univ. 2017, 55, 195–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Verma, R.S.; Padalia, R.C.; Chauhan, A.; Sundaresan, V. Essential oil composition of Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski from India. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2014, 26, 29–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Padin, S.B.; Fuse, C.; Urrutia, M.I.; Dal Bello, G.M. Toxicity and repellency of nine medicinal plants against Tribolium castaneum in stored wheat. Bull. Insectol. 2013, 66, 45–49. [Google Scholar]
  79. Al-Mazroa, S.A.; Al-Wahaibi, L.H.; Mousa, A.A.; Al-Khathlan, H.Z. Essential oil of some seasonal flowering plants grown in Saudi Arabia. Arab. J. Chem. 2015, 8, 212–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  80. Saeedi, M.; Morteza-Semnani, K. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Heliotropium europaeum. Chem. Nat. Comp. 2009, 45, 98–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Ahmed, S.; Ibrahim, M.; Khalid, K. Investigation of essential oil constituents isolated from Trichodesma africanum (L.) grow wild in Egypt. Res. J. Med. Plant 2015, 9, 248–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  82. Kamali, H.; Sani, T.A.; Feyzi, P.; Mohammadi, A. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity from essential oil of Capsella bursa-pastoris. Int. J. Pharmtech. Res. 2015, 8, 1–4. [Google Scholar]
  83. Mohammadzadeh Moghaddam, M.; Elhamirad, A.H.; Shariatifar, N.; Saidee Asl, M.R.; Armin, M. Anti-bacterial effects of essential oil of Cardaria draba against bacterial food borne pathogens. Horizon Med. Sci. 2014, 19, 9–16. [Google Scholar]
  84. Prabhakar, K.R.; Srinivasan, K.K.; Rao, P.G. Chemical investigation, anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties of Coronopus didymus. Pharm. Boil. 2002, 40, 490–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  85. Mahmoud, A.W.M.; Taha, S.S. Main sulphur content in essential oil of Eruca Sativa as affected by nano iron and nano zinc mixed with organic manure. Agriculture 2018, 64, 65–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  86. El-Shabasy, A. Survey on medicinal plants in the flora of Jizan Region, Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Bot. Stud. 2016, 2, 38–59. [Google Scholar]
  87. Rad, J.S.; Alfatemi, M.H.; Rad, M.S.; Sen, D.J. Phytochemical and antimicrobial evaluation of the essential oils and antioxidant activity of aqueous extracts from flower and stem of Sinapis arvensis L. Open J. Adv. Drug Deliv. 2013, 1, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
  88. Al-Qudah, M.A.; Abu Zarga, M.H. Chemical composition of essential oils from aerial parts of Sisymbrium irio from Jordan. J. Chem. 2010, 7, 6–10. [Google Scholar]
  89. Yousif, F.; Wassel, G.; Boulos, L.; Labib, T.; Mahmoud, K.; El-Hallouty, S.; El-Manawaty, M. Contribution to in vitro screening of Egyptian plants for schistosomicidal activity. Pharm. Biol. 2012, 50, 732–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  90. Kulisic-Bilusic, T.; Schmöller, I.; Schnäbele, K.; Siracusa, L.; Ruberto, G. The anticarcinogenic potential of essential oil and aqueous infusion from caper (Capparis spinosa L.). Food Chem. 2012, 132, 261–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Jovanović, M.; Mimica-Dukić, N.; Poljački, M.; Boža, P. Erythema multiforme due to contact with weeds: A recurrence after patch testing. Contact Dermat. 2003, 48, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Ogunwande, I.A.; Flamini, G.; Adefuye, A.E.; Lawal, N.O.; Moradeyo, S.; Avoseh, N.O. Chemical compositions of Casuarina equisetifolia L. Eucalyptus toreliana L. and Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem cultivated in Nigeria. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2011, 77, 645–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Essien, E.E.; Newby, J.M.; Walker, T.M.; Ogunwande, I.A.; Setzer, W.N.; Ekundayo, O. Essential oil constituents, anticancer and antimicrobial activity of Ficus mucoso and Casuarina equisetifolia leaves. Am. J. Essent. Oil 2016, 4, 1–06. [Google Scholar]
  94. Javidnia, K.; Nasiri, A.; Miri, R.; Jamalian, A. Composition of the essential oil of Helianthemum kahiricum Del. from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2007, 19, 52–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. Shahin, S.M.; Kurup, S.; Cheruth, J.; Lennartz, F.; Salem, M. Growth, yield, and physiological responses of Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. under varied irrigation levels in sandy soils. J. Food Agric. Environ. 2018, 16, 124–134. [Google Scholar]
  96. Rassouli, E.; Dadras, O.G.; Bina, E.; Asgarpanah, J. The essential oil composition of Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2014, 17, 158–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Abd El-Gawad, A.M.; El-Amier, Y.A.; Bonanomi, G. Essential oil composition, antioxidant and allelopathic activities of Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile. Chem. Biodivers. 2018, 15, e1800392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  98. Anbazhagi, T.; Kadavul, K.; Suguna, G.; Petrus, A.J.A. Studies on the pharmacognostical and in vitro antioxidant potential of Cleome gynandra Linn. leaves. Nat. Prod. Rad. 2009, 8, 151–157. [Google Scholar]
  99. Owolabi, M.S.; Lawal, O.A.; Ogunwande, I.A.; Hauser, R.M.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition of the leaf essential oil of Terminalia catappa L. growing in Southwestern Nigeria. Am. J. Essent. Oil 2013, 1, 51–54. [Google Scholar]
  100. Böhme, M.; Pinker, I. Investigation regarding the potential for cultivation of indigenous vegetables in Southeast Asia. Acta Hortic. 2006, 752, 179–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  101. Al-Harbi, N.O. Effect of marjoram extract treatment on the cytological and biochemical changes induced by cyclophosphamide in mice. J. Med. Plant Res. 2011, 5, 5479–5485. [Google Scholar]
  102. Joshi, R.K. Sesquiterpene-rich volatile constituents of Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. Nat. Prod. Res. 2015, 29, 1935–1937. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  103. Fernando, L.N.; Grün, I.U. Headspace–SPME analysis of volatiles of the ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) and bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) flowers. Flavour Fragr. J. 2001, 16, 289–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  104. Braca, A.; Siciliano , T.; D’Arrigo, M.; Germanò, M.P. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Momordica charantia seed essential oil. Fitoterapia 2008, 79, 123–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  105. Govindarajan, M.; Sivakumar, R.; Rajeswary, M.; Yogalakshmi, K. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil from Ocimum basilicum (L.) against Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus and Anopheles subpictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Exp. Parasitol. 2013, 134, 7–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  106. Feizbakhsh, A.; Aghassi, A.; Naeemy, A. Chemical constituents of the essential oils of Cyperus difformis L. and Cyperus arenarius Retz from Iran. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2012, 15, 48–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  107. Hisham, A.; Rameshkumar, K.B.; Sherwani, N.; Al-Saidi, S.; Al-Kindy, S. The composition and antimicrobial activities of Cyperus conglomeratus, Desmos chinensis var. lawii and Cyathocalyx zeylanicus essential oils. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2012, 7, 663–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  108. Hu, Q.P.; Cao, X.M.; Hao, D.L.; Zhang, L.L. Chemical composition, antioxidant, DNA damage protective, cytotoxic and antibacterial activities of Cyperus rotundus rhizomes essential oil against foodborne pathogens. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  109. Zhu, Q.; Jiang, M.L.; Shao, F.; Ma, G.Q.; Shi, Q.; Liu, R.H. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil from Euphorbia helioscopia L. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2020, 15, 1934578X20953249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Ogunlesi, M.; Okiei, W.; Ofor, E.; Osibote, A.E. Analysis of the essential oil from the dried leaves of Euphorbia hirta Linn (Euphorbiaceae), a potential medication for asthma. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009, 8, 7042–7050. [Google Scholar]
  111. Lin, J.; Dou, J.; Xu, J.; Aisa, H.A. Chemical composition, antimicrobial and antitumor activities of the essential oils and crude extracts of Euphorbia macrorrhiza. Molecules 2012, 17, 5030–5039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Salem, N.; Bachrouch, O.; Sriti, J.; Msaada, K.; Khammassi, S.; Hammami, M.; Selmi, S.; Boushih, E.; Koorani, S.; Abderraba, M.; et al. Fumigant and repellent potentials of Ricinus communis and Mentha pulegium essential oils against Tribolium castaneum and Lasioderma serricorne. Int. J. Food Prop. 2017, 20 (Suppl. S3), S2899–S2913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  113. Samejo, M.Q.; Memon, S.; Bhanger, M.I.; Khan, K.M. Chemical composition of essential oils from Alhagi maurorum. Chem. Nat. Comp. 2012, 48, 898–900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Hassanshahian, M.; Saadatfar, A.; Masoumipour, F. Formulation and characterization of nanoemulsion from Alhagi maurorum essential oil and study of its antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and plasmid curing activity against antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria. J. Environ. Health Sci. Eng. 2020, 18, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Sabudak, T.; Goren, A.C. Volatile Composition of Trifolium and Medicago Species. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2011, 14, 401–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  116. Gweru, N.; Gundidza, M.; Magwa, M.L.; Ramalivhana, N.J.; Humphrey, G.; Samie, A.; Mmbengwa, V. Phytochemical composition and biological activities of essential oil of Rhynchosia minima (L) (DC) (Fabaceae). Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009, 8, 721–724. [Google Scholar]
  117. Jia, X.; Zhang, C.; Qiu, J.; Wang, L.; Bao, J.; Wang, K.; Han, J. Purification, structural characterization and anticancer activity of the novel polysaccharides from Rhynchosia minima root. Carbohydr. Polym. 2015, 132, 67–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Hamed Chitsazan, M.; Bina, E.; Asgarpanah, J. Essential oil composition of the endemic species Tephrosia persica Boiss. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2014, 26, 141–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Al-Qudah, M.A.; Al-Ghoul, A.M.; Trawenh, I.N.; Al-Jaber, H.I.; Al Shboul, T.M.; Abu Zarga, M.H.; Abu orabi, S.T. Antioxidant Activity and Chemical Composition of Essential Oils from Jordanian Ononis natrix L. and Ononis sicula Guss. J. Biol. Active Prod. Nat. 2014, 4, 52–61. [Google Scholar]
  120. Ogunbinu, A.O.; Okeniyi, S.; Flamini, G.; Cioni, P.L.; Ogunwande, I.A.; Babalola, I.T. Essential oil composition of Acacia nilotica Linn., and Acacia albida Delile (Leguminosae) from Nigeria. J. Essen. Oil Res. 2010, 22, 540–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Vivekanandhan, P.; Venkatesan, R.; Ramkumar, G.; Karthi, S.; Senthil-Nathan, S.; Shivakumar, M.S. Comparative analysis of major mosquito vectors response to seed-derived essential oil and seed pod-derived extract from Acacia nilotica. Int. J. Environ. Res. 2018, 15, 388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  122. Ogunwande, I.A.; Matsui, T.; Matsumoto, K.; Shimoda, M.; Kubmarawa, D. Constituents of the essential oil from the leaves of Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2008, 20, 116–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Harzallah-Skhiri, F.; Jannet, H.B.; Hammami, S.; Mighri, Z. Variation of volatile compounds in two Prosopis farcta (Banks et Sol.) Eig.(Fabales, Fabaceae= Leguminosae) populations. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006, 21, 484–487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  124. Chaieb, I. Research on insecticidal plants in Tunisia: Review and discussion of methodological approaches. Tunis. J. Plant Prot. 2011, 6, 109–125. [Google Scholar]
  125. Ljoljić Bilić, V.; Stabentheiner, E.; Kremer, D.; Dunkić, V.; Grubešić, R.J.; Rodríguez, J.V. Phytochemical and micromorphological characterization of croatian populations of Erodium cicutarium. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2019, 14, 1934578X19856257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  126. Morshedloo, M.R.; Ebadi, A.; Maggi, F.; Fattahi, R.; Yazdani, D.; Jafari, M. Chemical characterization of the essential oil compositions from Iranian populations of Hypericum perforatum L. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 76, 565–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  127. Al-Qudah, M.A.; Saleh, A.M.; Al-Jaber, H.I.; Tashtoush, H.I.; Lahham, J.N.; Zarga, M.H.A.; Orabi, S.T.A. New isoflavones from Gynandriris sisyrinchium and their antioxidant and cytotoxic activities. Fitoterapia 2015, 107, 15–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  128. Sharifi-Rad, J.; Hoseini-Alfatemi, S.M.; Sharifi-Rad, M.; Setzer, W.N. Chemical composition, antifungal and antibacterial activities of essential oil from Lallemantia royleana (Benth. In Wall.) Benth. J. Food Saf. 2015, 35, 19–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  129. Bardaweel, S.K.; Bakchiche, B.; ALSalamat, H.A.; Rezzoug, M.; Gherib, A.; Flamini, G. Chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial and Antiproliferative activities of essential oil of Mentha spicata L.(Lamiaceae) from Algerian Saharan atlas. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2018, 18, 201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  130. Al-Marzouqi, A.H.; Rao, M.V.; Jobe, B. Comparative evaluation of SFE and steam distillation methods on the yield and composition of essential oil extracted from spearmint (Mentha spicata). J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol. 2007, 30, 463–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  131. Dekker, T.; Ignell, R.; Ghebru, M.; Glinwood, R.; Hopkins, R. Identification of mosquito repellent odours from Ocimum forskolei. Parasites Vectors 2011, 4, 183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  132. Pourhosseini, M.; Asgarpanah, J. Essential and fixed oil chemical profiles of Salvia aegyptiaca L. Flowers and seeds. J. Chil. Chem. Soc. 2015, 60, 2747–2748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  133. Mirzania, F.; Sarrafi, Y.; Farimani, M.M. Comparison of chemical composition, antifungal antibacterial activities of two populations of Salvia macilenta Boiss. Essential oil. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2018, 12, 385–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  134. Rajabi, Z.; Ebrahimi, M.; Farajpour, M.; Mirza, M.; Ramshini, H. Compositions and yield variation of essential oils among and within nine Salvia species from various areas of Iran. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 61, 233–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  135. Zomorodian, K.; Moein, M.; Pakshir, K.; Karami, F.; Sabahi, Z. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activities of the essential oil from Salvia mirzayanii leaves. J. Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2017, 22, 770–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  136. Flamini, G.; Cioni, P.L.; Morelli, I.; Bader, A. Essential oils of the aerial parts of three Salvia species from Jordan: Salvia lanigera, S. spinosa and S. syriaca. Food Chem. 2007, 100, 732–735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  137. Cozzani, S.; Muselli, A.; Desjobert, J.M.; Bernardini, A.F.; Tomi, F.; Casanova, J. Chemical composition of essential oil of Teucrium polium subsp. capitatum (L.) from Corsica. Flavour Fragr. J. 2005, 20, 436–441. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  138. Kabudari, A.; Mahalleh, S.F.R.P. Study of antibacterial effects of Teucrium polium essential oil on Bacillus cereus in cultural laboratory and commercial soup. Carpathian Food Sci. Technol. 2016, 8, 176–183. [Google Scholar]
  139. Sonboli, A.; Bahadori, M.B.; Dehghan, H.; Aarabi, L.; Savehdroudi, P.; Nekuei, M.; Pournaghi, N.; Mirzania, F. Chemotaxonomic Importance of the Essential-Oil Composition in Two Subspecies of Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. from Iran. Chem. Biodivers. 2013, 10, 687–694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  140. Misaghi, A.; Basti, A.A. Effects of Zataria multiflora Boiss. essential oil and nisin on Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778. Food Control 2007, 18, 1043–1049. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  141. Mahboubi, M.; Bidgoli, F.G. Antistaphylococcal activity of Zataria multiflora essential oil and its synergy with vancomycin. Phytomedicine 2010, 17, 548–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  142. El-Shabrawy, M.O.; Marzouk, M.M.; Kawashty, S.A.; Hosni, H.A.; El Garf, I.A.; Saleh, N.A.M. Flavonoid constituents of Dipcadi erythraeum Webb. & Berthel. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 2016, 6, 404–405. [Google Scholar]
  143. Satyal, P.; Paudel, P.; Poudel, A.; Setzer, W.N. Antimicrobial activities and constituents of the leaf essential oil of Lawsonia inermis growing in Nepal. Pharmacol. OnLine 2012, 1, 31–35. [Google Scholar]
  144. Ahmad, F. GIS, GPS and remote sensing application to investigate agricultural potential in Cholistan. Soc. Nat. 2007, 19, 55–64. [Google Scholar]
  145. Chaves, T.P.; Pinheiro, R.E.E.; Melo, E.S.; Soares, M.J.D.S.; Souza, J.S.N.; de Andrade, T.B.; Telma, L.; Gomes, L.; Coutinho, H.D. Essential oil of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn potentiates β-lactam activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli resistant strains. Ind. Crops Prod. 2018, 112, 70–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  146. Barra, A.; Coroneo, V.; Dessi, S.; Cabras, P.; Angioni, A. Chemical variability, antifungal and antioxidant activity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis essential oil from Sardinia. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 329–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  147. Younis, A.; Mehdi, A.; Riaz, A. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction and gas chromatography analysis of Jasminum sambac essential oil. Pak. J. Bot. 2011, 43, 163–168. [Google Scholar]
  148. Mukesi, M.; Iweriebor, B.C.; Obi, L.C.; Nwodo, U.U.; Moyo, S.R.; Okoh, A.I. The activity of commercial antimicrobials, and essential oils and ethanolic extracts of Olea europaea on Streptococcus agalactiae isolated from pregnant women. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2019, 19, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  149. Middleditch, B.S. Kuwaiti Plants: Distribution, Traditional Medicine, Pytochemistry, Pharmacology and Economic Value; Elsevier: New York, NY, USA, 2012; Volume 2. [Google Scholar]
  150. Artizzu, N.; Bonsignore, L.; Cottiglia, F.; Loy, G. Studies on the diuretic and antimicrobial activity of Cynodon dactylon essential oil. Fitoterapia 1996, 67, 174–176. [Google Scholar]
  151. Arjunan, N.; Murugan, K.; Madhiyazhagan, P.; Kovendan, K.; Prasannakumar, K.; Thangamani, S.; Barnard, D.R. Mosquitocidal and water purification properties of Cynodon dactylon, Aloe vera, Hemidesmus indicus and Coleus amboinicus leaf extracts against the mosquito vectors. Parasitol. Res. 2012, 110, 1435–1443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  152. Vasilakoglou, I.; Dhima, K.; Paschalidis, K.; Ritzoulis, C. Herbicidal potential on Lolium rigidum of nineteen major essential oil components and their synergy. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2013, 25, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  153. Llewellyn, R.S.; D’emden, F.H.; Owen, M.J.; Powles, S.B. Herbicide resistance in rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) has not led to higher weed densities in Western Australian cropping fields. Weed Sci. 2009, 57, 61–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  154. Abu-Rabia, A. Ethnobotany among Bedouin Tribes in the Middle East. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East; Springer: Dordrech, The Netherlands, 2014; pp. 27–36. [Google Scholar]
  155. Khanuja, S.P.; Shasany, A.K.; Pawar, A.; Lal, R.K.; Darokar, M.P.; Naqvi, A.A.; Kumar, S. Essential oil constituents and RAPD markers to establish species relationship in Cymbopogon Spreng.(Poaceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2005, 33, 171–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  156. Hashim, G.M.; Almasaudi, S.B.; Azhar, E.; Al Jaouni, S.K.; Harakeh, S. Biological activity of Cymbopogon schoenanthus essential oil. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 2017, 24, 1458–1464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  157. Samejo, M.Q.; Memon, S.; Bhanger, M.I.; Khan, K.M. Chemical composition of essential oil from Calligonum polygonoides Linn. Nat. Prod. Res. 2013, 27, 619–623. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  158. Samejo, M.Q.; Memon, S.; Bhanger, M.I.; Khan, K.M. Essential oil constituents in fruit and stem of Calligonum polygonoides. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 45, 293–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  159. Soliman, S.S.M.; Alsaadi, A.I.; Youssef, E.G.; Khitrov, G.; Noreddin, A.M.; Husseiny, M.I.; Ibrahim, A.S. Calli Essential Oils Synergize with Lawsone against Multidrug Resistant Pathogens. Molecules 2017, 22, 2223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  160. Elfotoh, M.A.; Shams, K.A.; Anthony, K.P.; Shahat, A.A.; Ibrahim, M.T.; Abdelhady, N.M.; Azim, N.S.; Hammouda, F.M.; El-Missiry, M.M.; Saleh, M.A. Lipophilic Constituents of Rumex vesicarius L. and Rumex dentatus L. Antioxidans 2013, 2, 167–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  161. Harzallah, H.J.; Kouidhi, B.; Flamini, G.; Bakhrouf, A.; Mahjoub, T. Chemical composition, antimicrobial potential against cariogenic bacteria and cytotoxic activity of Tunisian Nigella sativa essential oil and thymoquinone. Food Chem. 2011, 129, 1469–1474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  162. Xue, Z.; Feng, W.; Cao, J.; Cao, D.; Jiang, W. Antioxidant activity and total phenolic contents in peel and pulp of Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill) fruits. J. Food Biochem. 2009, 33, 613–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  163. Ghannadi, A.; Tavakoli, N.; Mehri-Ardestani, M. Volatile constituents of the leaves of Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. from Bushehr, Iran. J. Essen. Oil Res. 2003, 15, 191–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  164. Jan, A.K.; Anis, I.; Shah, M.R. Chemical Composition and Antifungal Activity of the Essential Oil of Galium tricornutum subsp. longipedanculatum from Pakistan. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2015, 51, 164–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  165. Al-Rehaily, A.J.; Alqasoumi, S.I.; Yusufoglu, H.S.; Al-Yahya, M.A.; Demirci, B.; Tabanca, N.; Wedge, D.E.; Demirci, F.; Bernier, U.R.; Becnel, J.J.; et al. Chemical Composition and biological activity of Haplophyllum tuberculatum Juss. essential oil. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2014, 17, 452–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  166. Tampe, J.; Parra, L.; Huaiquil, K.; Quiroz, A. Potential repellent activity of the essential oil of Ruta chalepensis (Linnaeus) from Chile against Aegorhinus superciliosus (Guérin) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2016, 16, 48–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  167. Alali, F.; Hudaib, M.; Aburjai, T.; Khairallah, K.; Al-Hadidi, N. GC-MS Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of the Essential Oil from the Stem of the Jordanian Toothbrush Tree Salvadora persica. Pharm. Biol. 2005, 42, 577–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  168. Sofrata, A.; Santangelo, E.M.; Azeem, M.; Borg-Karlson, A.K.; Gustafsson, A.; Pütsep, K. Benzyl isothiocyanate, a major component from the roots of Salvadora persica is highly active against Gram-negative bacteria. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e23045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  169. Mehrotra, V.; Mehrotra, S.; Kirar, V.; Shyam, R.; Misra, K.; Srivastava, A.K.; Nandi, S.P. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of aqueous extract of Withania somnifera against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. Res. 2017, 1, 40–45. [Google Scholar]
  170. AbouZid, S.; Elshahaat, A.; Ali, S.; Choudhary, M.I. Antioxidant activity of wild plants collected in Beni-Sueif governorate, Upper Egypt. Drug Discov. Ther. 2008, 2, 286–288. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  171. Li, D.H.; Wang, Z.; Liang, Z.Y.; Yang, X.B.; Xu, J. Comparative evaluation of the chemical composition of essential oil from twig, leaf and root of Clerodendrum inerme (L.). Gaertn. Adv. Mat. Res. 2012, 343, 22–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  172. Deena, M.J.; Thoppil, J.E. Antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Lantana camara. Fitoterapia 2000, 71, 453–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  173. Sousa, E.O.; Almeida, T.S.; Menezes, I.R.; Rodrigues, F.F.; Campos, A.R.; Lima, S.G.; Costa, J.G. Chemical composition of essential oil of Lantana camara L.(Verbenaceae) and synergistic effect of the aminoglycosides gentamicin and amikacin. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2012, 6, 144–150. [Google Scholar]
  174. Benavides Calvache, O.L.; Villota, J.M.; Milena Tovar, D. Characterization of essential oil present in the leaves of Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene (OROZUL). Univ. Salud 2010, 12, 57–64. [Google Scholar]
  175. Senatore, F. Della Porta, G.; Reverchon, E. Constituents of Vitex agnus-castus L. Essential Oil Flavour. Fragr. J. 1996, 11, 179–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  176. Khalilzadeh, E.; Saiah, G.V.; Hasannejad, H.; Ghaderi, A.; Ghaderi, S.; Hamidian, G.; Mahmoudi, R.; Eshgi, D.; Zangisheh, M. Antinociceptive effects, acute toxicity and chemical composition of Vitex agnus-castus essential oil. Avicenna J. Phytomed. 2015, 5, 218. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  177. Huang, L.S.; Zhu, F.; Huang, M.Z. GC/MS analysis of the chemical constituents of the essential oil from the fruits of Avicennia marina. Fine Chem. 2009, 3, 11. [Google Scholar]
  178. Akhbari, M.; Batooli, H.; Kashi, F.J. Composition of essential oil and biological activity of extracts of Viola odorata L. from central Iran. Nat. Prod. Res. 2012, 26, 802–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  179. Abdel-Rahim, I.R. Control of Alternaria rot disease of pear fruits using essential oil of Viola odorata. J. Phytopathol. Pest Manag. 2016, 3, 71–84. [Google Scholar]
  180. Charles, D.J.; Simon, J.E.; Singh, N.K. The essential oil of Alpinia galanga Willd. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1992, 4, 81–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  181. Wu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, Z.; Wang, C.; Wei, J.; Li, X.; Wang, P.; Zhou, Z.; Huang, D.; Deng, Z. Composition of the essential oil from Alpinia galanga rhizomes and its bioactivity on Lasioderma serricorne. Bull. Insectol. 2014, 67, 247–254. [Google Scholar]
  182. Das, A.; Dey, S.; Sahoo, R.K.; Sahoo, S.; Subudhi, E. Antibiofilm and antibacterial activity of essential oil bearing Zingiber officinale Rosc.(Ginger) Rhizome against multi-drug resistant isolates. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2019, 22, 1163–1171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  183. Yang, S.; Bai, M.; Yang, J.; Yuan, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Qin, J.; Kuang, Y.; Sampietro, D.A. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oils from Peganum harmala, Nepeta cataria and Phellodendron amurense against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). Saudi Pharm. J. 2020, 28, 560–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  184. Fraga, B.M. Natural sesquiterpenoids. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2006, 23, 943–972. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  185. Raut, J.S.; Karuppayil, S.M. A status review on the medicinal properties of essential oils. Ind. Crops Prod. 2014, 62, 250–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  186. Sajjadi, S.E.; Ghassemi, N.; Shokoohinia, Y.; Moradi, H. Essential oil composition of flowers of Anthemis odontostephana Boiss. var. odontostephana. J. Essent. Oil Bear. Plants 2013, 16, 247–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  187. Ezazi, A.; Rahchamani, N.; Ghahremaninejad, F. The flora of Saluk National Park, Northern Khorassan province, Iran. J. Biodivers. Environ. Sci. 2014, 5, 45–71. [Google Scholar]
  188. Rabie, M.; Asri, Y.; Hamzehee, B.; Jalili, A.; Sefidkon, F. Determination of chemotaxonomic indices of Artemisia sieberi Besser based on environmental parameters in Iran. Iran. J. Bot. 2012, 18, 149–157. [Google Scholar]
  189. Paolini, J.; Barboni, T.; Desjobert, J.M.; Djabou, N.; Muselli, A.; Costa, J. Chemical composition, intraspecies variation and seasonal variation in essential oils of Calendula arvensis L. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2010, 38, 865–874. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  190. Nandagopal, S.; Ranjitha Kumari, B.D. Adenine sulphate induced high frequency shoot organogenesis in callus and in vitro flowering of Cichorium intybus L. cv. Focus-a potent medicinal plant. Acta Agric. Slov. 2006, 87, 415–425. [Google Scholar]
  191. Mabrouk, S.; Elaissi, A.; Ben Jannet, H.; Harzallah-Skhiri, F. Chemical composition of essential oils from leaves, stems, flower heads and roots of Conyza bonariensis L. from Tunisia. Nat. Prod. Res. 2011, 25, 77–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  192. Soares, A.A.F.; Fregonezi, A.M.D.T.; Bassi, D.; Mangolin, C.A.; de Oliviera Collet, S.A.; de Oliveira Junior, R.S.; da Silva, M.d.F.P. Evidence of high gene flow between samples of horseweed (Conyza canadensis) and hairy fleabane (Conyza bonariensis) as revealed by isozyme polymorphisms. Weed Sci. 2015, 63, 604–612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  193. Sadeghi, Z.; Kuhestani, K.; Abdollahi, V.; Mahmood, A. Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous medicinal plants of Saravan region: Baluchistan Iran. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 153, 111–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  194. Louhaichi, M.; Salkini, A.K.; Estita, H.E.; Belkhir, S. Initial assessment of medicinal plants across the Libyan Mediterranean coast. Adv. Environ. Biol. 2011, 5, 359–370. [Google Scholar]
  195. Roby, M.H.H.; Sarhan, M.A.; Selim, K.A.H.; Khalel, K.I. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). Ind. Crop. Prod. 2013, 44, 437–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  196. EL-Kamali, H.H.; Yousif, M.O.; Ahmed, O.I.; Sabir, S.S. Phytochemical analysis of the essential oil from aerial parts of Pulicaria undulata (L.) Kostel from Sudan. Ethnobot. Leafl. 2009, 13, 467–471. [Google Scholar]
  197. Nematollahi, F.; Rustaiyan, A.; Larijani, K.; Nadimi, M.; Masoudi, S. Essential oil composition of Artemisia biennisz Willd. and Pulicaria undulata (L.) CA Mey.: Two compositae herbs growing wild in Iran. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2006, 18, 339–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  198. Ali, A.; Demirci, B.; Kiyan, H.T.; Bernier, U.R.; Tsikolia, M.; Wedge, D.E.; Khan, I.; Baser, K.; Tabanca, N. Biting deterrence, repellency, and larvicidal activity of Ruta chalepensis (Sapindales: Rutaceae) essential oil and its major individual constituents against mosquitoes. J. Med. Entomol. 2013, 50, 1267–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  199. Znini, M.; Bouklah, M.; Majidi, L.; Kharchouf, S.; Aouniti, A.; Bouyanzer, A.; Hammouti, B.; Costa, J.; Al-Deyab, S.S. Chemical composition and inhibitory effect of Mentha spicata essential oil on the corrosion of steel in molar hydrochloric acid. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2011, 6, 691–704. [Google Scholar]
  200. Ziaei, A.; Ramezani, M.; Wright, L.; Paetz, C.; Schneider, B.; Amirghofran, Z. Identification of spathulenol in Salvia mirzayanii and the immunomodulatory effects. Phytother. Res. 2011, 25, 557–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Molecules 26 06486 g001 550
Figure 1. Families of EO-bearing plant species in the UAE.
Figure 1. Families of EO-bearing plant species in the UAE.
Molecules 26 06486 g001
Molecules 26 06486 g002 550
Figure 2. Habitats of EO-bearing plants in the UAE.
Figure 2. Habitats of EO-bearing plants in the UAE.
Molecules 26 06486 g002
Molecules 26 06486 g003 550
Figure 3. Major plant parts for EO production in the UAE.
Figure 3. Major plant parts for EO production in the UAE.
Molecules 26 06486 g003
Molecules 26 06486 g004 550
Figure 4. Status of EO-bearing plants in the UAE.
Figure 4. Status of EO-bearing plants in the UAE.
Molecules 26 06486 g004
Table
Table 1. An overview of indigenous and naturalized essential oil-bearing plants of the UAE.
Table 1. An overview of indigenous and naturalized essential oil-bearing plants of the UAE.
FamilyBinomial Taxonomic Authority Synonyms “Syn.” and/or Common Names (English “Eng.” and/or Arabic “Arb.”) Reference Categorizing the Plant as Essential Oil-Bearing PlantReference for UAE Nativity/Natuaralization
1Aizoaceae/Ficoidaceae (Mesembryanthemum, carpetweed family) Sesuvium portulacastrumL.Sesuvium verrucosum Raf. (Eng. Shoreline purslane, sea purslane, sesuvium)[35][21,22]
2Amaranthaceae (Cockscomb family) Achyranthes asperaL.(Eng. Prickly chaff flower) (Arb. Saif el-jinn, umdhrese, sehem, ar-ray, mahoot, na’eem, wazer)[36][21,22]
3Aerva javanica(Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schul.(Eng. Desert cotton, snow bush) (Arb. Al ara’, twaim, efhe, tirf) [37,38][15,18,21,22,23,24,25,27,28,32]
4Chenopodium albumL.(Eng. Lamb’s quarters, melde, goosefoot, fat-hen, white goosefoot) (Arb. Shulah, ‘aifajan, rokab al-jamal)[39][15,21,22]
5Anacardiaceae (The cashew, sumac family) Pistacia khinjukStocks. [40][21]
6Apiaceae/Umbelliferae Ammi majusL.(Eng. Bishop’s flower, bishop’s weed) (Arb. Sannout, sheeh, khilla “khilla sheitani”, nayniya) [41][15,21,22,28]
7Anethum graveolensL.(Eng. Dill Weed) [42][15,21]
8Ducrosia anethifolia(DC.) Boiss.(Arb. Basbaz, haza)[43][15,21,22,28]
9Pimpinella eriocarpaBanks and Sol.(Arb. Kusaybirah) [44][15,21]
10Pimpinella puberula(DC.) Boiss. [45][15,21]
11Scandix pecten-venerisL.(Eng. Shepherd’s-needle, Crib Gwener) (Arb. Mushet)[46][15,21]
12Torilis leptophylla(L.) Reichenb.f.(Syn. Caucalis leptophylla) (Eng. Bristle-fruited hedge-parsley) [47][21]
13Apocynaceae (Dogbane family)Catharanthus roseus(L.) G. Don(Syn. Vinca rosea) (Eng. Madagascar periwinkle) [42][15]
14Nerium oleanderL.(Syn. Nerium mascatense) (Eng. Rosebay, olender) (Arb. Defla, haban) [48][15,21,22,28]
15Plumeria rubraL.(Eng. Nosegay, frangipan)[49][15,21,22,28]
16Calotropis procera(Aiton) W.T. Aiton(Eng. Apple of Sodom, Sodom apple, stabragh, kapok tree, king’s crown, rubber bush, rubber tree, Sodom’s apple milkweed) (Arb. ‘ushar, shakjr, ‘asur, ashkhar “askar”)[50][21,22,28]
17Arecaceae (Palmae, palmaceae family, palm trees) Phoenix dactyliferaL.(Eng. Date palm, date palm tree) (Arb. Nakhl, amm-amm) [51][15,21,22,28]
18Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae (Sunflower family)Anthemis odontostephanaBoiss.(Arb. O’qhowan) [52][15,21]
19Artemisia sieberiBesser (Eng. Wormwood)[53][28]
20Calendula arvensisL.(Eng. Field marigold) (Arb. Ain el baqr, eqhwan-asfar, hanwa, hanuwa) [54][15,21]
21Cichorium intybusL.(Eng. Blue daisy, blue dandelion, blue sailors, blue weed, bunk, coffeeweed) (Arb. hindibaa bareeya, chicoria) [55][15,21,28]
22Conyza bonariensis(L.) Cronq.(Syn. Conyza linifolia (Willd.) Tackh) (Eng. Flax-leaf Fleabane, Wavy-leaf Fleabane, hairy fleabane) (Arb. hashishat el-jebal, tebaq) [56][21,22]
23Eclipta prostrataL.(Syn. Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.) (Eng. False daisy, Trailing eclipta ). (Arb. Sa’ada, sauweid, masadate)[57][15,21]
24Grantia aucheriBoiss.No Information[58][27]
25Launaea nudicaulis(L.) Hook. f.(Eng. Hawwa Baqrah ara, hindabah ara, huwah ara, naked launea) (Arb. Huwah al ghazal, safara, huwah, hindabah)[59,60][15,21,22]
26Matricaria aurea(Loefl.) Sch. Bip.(Eng. Golden chamomile) (Arb. Babunaj)[61][21,28]
27Matricaria chamomillaL.(Syn. Matricaria recutita) (Eng. Chamomile, camomile, german chamomile)[62][63]
28Pluchea arabica(Boiss.) Qaiser and Lack (Eng. Pluchea) (Arb. godot)[64][28]
29Pluchea dioscoridis(L.) DC.(Syn. Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf., Baccharis dioscoridis L.) (Eng. Ploughmans spikenard, marsh fleabane) (Arb. Sahikee, barnof) [65][15,21,22]
30Pluchea ovalis(pers.) DC.(Eng. Woolly camphor-weed)[66][15,21]
31Pseudognaphalium luteo-album(L.) H. and B.(Syn. Gnaphalium luteo-album L.) (Eng. Cudweed) (Arb. sabount el’afrit)[67][21,22]
32Pulicaria arabica(L.) Cass.(Syn. Inula arabica L./Pulicaria elata Boiss./Pulicaria laniceps Bornm.) (Arb. Iqat, abu ‘ain safra)[68][21]
33Pulicaria glutinosaJaub. and Spach(Arb. Thal, fal, shajarat fal, muhayda, mithidi, shajarat al-mithidi, shneena, zayyan) [7][15,21,22]
34Pulicaria inuloides(Poir.) DC.No information[69,70,71][21]
35Pulicaria undulata(L.) C.A. Meyer(Syn. Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Benth.) (Eng. Crisp-leaved fleabane) (Arb. Gathgeth, jithjath, ‘urayfijan) [72][15,21,22]
36Rhanterium epapposumOliv.(Eng. Rhanterium) (Arb. Arfaj) [73][15,21,22]
37Senecio glaucusL. ssp. coronopifolius (Maire) Al.(Syn. Senecio desfontanei Druce) (Eng. Maire alexander, buck’s horn groundsel) (Arb. Qorreis, murair, zamlooq, shakhees, rejel al ghurab) [74][15,21,22]
38Seriphidium herba-alba(Asso) Sojak(Syn. Artemisia herba-alba Asso/Artemisia inculta Del) (Eng. Wormwood, white wormwood) (Arb. Ata, ghata, shih) [75,76][21]
39Sphagneticola trilobata (Syn. Wedelia paludosa DC.) (Eng. Singapore daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing daisy, wedelia)[77][15]
40Bignoniaceae (Bignonias family) Jacaranda mimosifoliaD. Con(Eng. Jacaranda, blue jacaranda, black poui, fern tree) [78][15]
41Boraginaceae (Borage, forget-me-not family)Arnebia linearifoliaDC.No Information[79][21]
42Heliotropium europaeumL.(Syn. Heliotropium lasiocarpum Fisch. and Mey.) (Eng. European heliotrope, european turnsole) (Arb. Karee) [80][15,21,22]
43Trichodesma africanum (Syn. Trichosdesma africana (L.) R. Br.) (Eng. African barbbell)[81][15]
44Brassicaceae/Cruciferae (Cress, mustard family) Capsella bursa-pastoris(L.) Medik.(Eng. Shepherd’s-purse) (Arb. Kis al ra’y) [82][15,21,22]
45Cardaria draba(L.) Desv.(Syn. Lepidium draba) (Eng. Whitetop, hoary cress) (Arb. lislis) [83][21,22]
46Coronopus didymus(L.) Sm.(Eng. Lesser swine-cress) (Arb. Rashad al-barr)[84][21,22]
47Erucaria hispanica (Eng. Spanish pink mustard, erucaria myagroides) (Arb. Khezaam, saleeh, kromb al sahra) [79][15,21]
48Eruca sativaMill.(Eng. Salad rocket, rucola, rucoli, rugula, colewort, roquette, garden rocket, rocket) (Arb. Girgir, jirjeer)[85][15,21,22,28]
49Savignya parviflora(Delile) Webb(Eng. Jaljalan, kanad al barr, gulgulan, girgees, small whorled cheeseweed) (Arb. Khzaymah, al-thee, jerjees “girgees”, gongolan “qunqulan, jaljelan, galeigelan, bithman”) [86][15,21,22]
50Schimpera arabicaHochst. and Steud. [79][15,21]
51Sinapsis arvensisL.(Syn. Sinapis arvensis L.) (Eng. Charlock, charlock mustard, wild mustard) [87][15,21]
52Sisymbrium irioL.(Eng. London rocket) (Arb. Howairah, shelyat, figl el-gamal, harrah) قراص حمار[88][21,28]
53Capparaceae/Capparidaceae (Caper family) Capparis cartilagineaDecne.(Eng. Caper) (Arb. Qubr, sediru, ashflah, lezaf “losef, lusfeh, ewsawf) [89][15,21,22,26,28]
54Capparis spinosaL.(Eng. Caper bush, flinders rose) (Arb. Kobar, lasafa, fakouha, shawk mal homar, shafallah, delayeer, dabayee) [89,90][15,21,22,28]
55Caryophyllaceae/Illecebraceae (Carnation family) Stellaria media(L.) Vill.(Eng. Chickweed, common chickweed, chickenwort, craches, maruns, winterweed, lawn weed) (Arb. Meshit, hashishet el-qizaz, qizaza) [91][15,21]
56Casuarinaceae (Beefwood family) Casuarina equisetifolia (Syn. Casuarina equistetifolia J.R. and G. Forst.) (Eng. Rhu, casuarina tree) [92,93][15]
57Cistaceae (Rock-rose, rock rose family) Helianthemum kahiricumDelile(Eng. Rock rose, sun rose) (Arb. Ragroog, qsasah, hashma) [94][15,21,22]
58Cleomaceae Cleome amblyocarpaBarr. and Murb.(Syn. Cleome africana, Cleome arabica, Cleome daryoushian) (Eng. Spider flower) (Arb. Adheer, durrayt an-na’am, khunnayz, ufaynah)[4,95][21]
59Cleome brachycarpaVahl ex DC.(Syn. Cleome vahliana Farsen) (Arb. Za’af, mkhaysah) [96][15,21]
60Cleome droserifoliaDel.(Syn. Roridula droserifolia Forssk.) (Eng. Cleome herb)[97][15]
61Cleome gynandraL.(Syn. Gynandropsis gynandra (L.)Briq.) (Eng. Shona cabbage, African cabbage) (Arb. Abu qarim)[98][21]
62Combretaceae Terminalia catappaL.(Eng. Indian almond-wood, bastard almond, andaman badam) هليلج هندي[99][15]
63Convolvulaceae (Morning glory, bindweed family) Ipomoea aquaticaForssk.(Eng. Kang kong, water convolvulus, water spinach, swamp cabbage, ong choy, hung tsai, rau muong) السبانخ المائي[100][21,22]
64Ipomoea obscura (Eng. Obscure morning-glory, small white morning glory)[101,102][21]
65Cucurbitaceae (Gourd family) Momordica charantiaL.(Eng. Bitter melon, bitter gourd, bitter squash, balsam-pear) [103,104][24]
66Luffa acutangula(L.) Roxb.(Eng. Angled luffa, chinese okra, dish cloth gourd, ridged gourd, sponge gourd, vegetable gourd, strainer vine, ribbed loofah, silky gourd, ridged gourd, silk gourd, sinkwa towelsponge)[103,105][21]
67Cyperaceae (Sedges family) Cyperus arenariusRetz.(Syn. Bobartia indica L.) (Eng. dwarf sedge)[106][21,22,34]
68Cyperus conglomeratusRottb.(Eng. Cyperus, mali tamachek saad) (Arb. Thenda. Ayzm, chadrum, qassis, rasha) [107][15,21,22,34]
69Cyperus rotundusL.(Eng. Coco-grass, Java grass, nut grass, purple nut sedge, red nut sedge, Khmer kravanh chruk) (Arb. Sa’ed, sa’ed al hammar, hasir) [108][15,21,22,28,34]
70Euphorbiaceae (Spurge, castor, euphorbias family) Euphorbia helioscopiaL.(Eng. Sun spurge, madwoman’s milk) (Arb. Haleeb al-diba, sa’asa, tanahout, kerbaboosh) [109][21,22]
71Euphorbia hirtaL.(Eng. Asthma plant, asthma weed, pill-bearing spurge) (Arb. Libbein, demeema, menthra) [110][15,21,22]
72Euphorbia peplusL.(Syn. Euphorbia peplis L.) (Eng. Petty spurge, radium weed, cancer weed, milkweed)
(Arb. Khunaiz) 		[111][21,22,28]
73Ricinus communisL.(Eng. Castor oil) (Arb. ‘Arash, ash’asheh, khasaab, khirwa “khurwa’a”, junijund, tifsh) [112][15,21,22,28]
74Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae (Pea family) Alhagi maurorumMedik.(Syn. Alhagi graecorum Boiss.) (Eng. Camelthorn, camelthorn-bush, caspian manna, persian mannaplant) (Arb. Shwaika, agool, heidj)[113,114][15,24]
75Lotus halophilusBoiss. and Spruner(Eng. Greater bird’s foot trefoi) (Arb. Horbeith “hurbuth”, garn al ghazal, ‘asheb al ghanem) [79,89][15,21,22]
76Medicago polymorphaL.(Eng. California burclover, toothed bur clover, toothed medick, burr medic) [115][15,21,22]
77Medicago sativaL.(Eng. Alfalfa, lucerne) [116][15]
78Rhynchosia minima(L.) DC.(Eng. least snout-bean, burn-mouth-vine and jumby bean) (Arb. Baql)[117][15,21,22]
79Tephrosia persicaBoiss.(Syn. Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) DC.) (Arb. Dhafra, omayye, nafal)[118][15,21,32]
80Trigonella hamosaL.(Eng. Branched fenugreek, Egyptian fenugreek) (Arb. Nafal, qutifa, qirqas, darjal, eshb al-malik, qurt) [79][15,21,22]
81Ononis siculaGuss.------[119][21]
82Acacia nilotica(L.) Delile(Syn. Acacia Arabica (Lam.) Willd.) (Eng. Gum arabic tree, babul/kikar, Egyptian thorn, sant tree, al-sant, prickly acacia) (Arb. Sunt garath “kurut”, babul, tulh. Fruit: karat) [120,121][15,21,22,26,28]
83Acacia tortilis(Forssk.) Hayne(Eng. Umbrella thorn) (Arb. Samr “samur”, salam) [120,122][15,21,22,26,32]
84Prosopis farcta(Banks and Sol.) Mac.(Eng. Dwarf mesquite, syrian mesquite) (Arb. Yanbut, agoul, awsaj) [123][15,21,22]
85FrankeniaceaeFrankenia pulverulentaL.(Eng. European Frankenia, European sea heath) (Arb. Molleih, hamra (hmaira), Umm thurayb) [124][21,22]
86Geraniaceae (Geranium family) Erodium cicutarium(L.) L Her. Ex Aiton(Eng. Redstem filaree, redstem stork’s bill, common stork’s-bill, pinweed)[125][21]
87Hypericaceae (St. Johnswort family)Hypericum perforatum (Eng. St.John’s wort)[126][30]
88Iridaceae (Irises family) Gynandriris sisyrinchium(L.) Parl.(Syn. Iris sisyrinchium L., Moraea sisyrinchium (L.) Ker Gawl.) (Eng. Barbary Nut, mountain iris) (Arb. Khowais, su’ayd, ‘unsayl) [127][15,21]
89Lamiaceae/Labiatae (Mint, deadnettle family) Lallemantia royleana(Benth.) Benth.(Eng. Bian bing cao)[128][21]
90Mentha spicata spicata (Eng. Spearmint, spear mint) [129][63,130]
91Ocimum forsskaoliiBenth.(Syn. Ocimum forskolei Benth.) (Eng. Rehan, sawma)
(Arb. Basil) 		[131][15,21,28]
92Salvia aegyptiacaL.(Eng. Egyptian sage) (Arb. Ra’al, na’aim, ghbeisha, shajarat al ghazal, khizam)[132][15,21,22,24,28]
93Salvia macilentaBoiss.(Eng. Khizama) (Arb. Khmayzah lethnay, bithman)[133][15,21,22]
94Salvia macrosiphonBoiss.(Arb. Shajarat Al Ghazal)[134][15,21]
95Salvia mirzayaniiRech.f. and Esfandiari [135][21]
96Salvia spinosaL.(Arb. Shajarat al-ghazal) [136][21,22]
97Teucrium poliumL.(Eng. Felty germander) [137,138][21,28]
98Teucrium stocksianumBoiss.(Eng. Jadah, yadah, Ja‘adah) (Arb. Ya’dah, brair) [6,139][15,21,22,24,32,28]
99Zataria multifloraBoiss.(Eng. Za’atar, shirazi thyme) [140,141][24]
100Liliaceae (lily family)Dipcadi erythraeumWebb and Berth.(Synonym: Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medik.) (Eng. Brown Lily, Hyacinthus serotinus, mesailemo, besailemo) (Arb. Busalamo, ansel, misselmo, shkal).[142][15,21,22]
101Lythraceae Lawsonia inermisL.(Eng. Egyptian Privet, the henna tree, mignonette tree) [143][15,21,22,24,28]
102Malvaceae/Tiliaceae (Mallows family) Corchorus depressus(L.) Stocks.(Eng. Mulakhiyah al bar, sutaih, rukbat al jamal) (Arb. Matara, seluntah, mulukhia el bar, waikai) [144][15,21,22]
103Moringaceae (Moringa family)Moringa peregrina(Forssk.) Fiori(Eng.Wild drumstick tree) (Arb. Shu’, yasar, baan, ’aweyr, bayreh, terfaal, yayn) [8][21]
104Myrtaceae (Myrtle family) Eucalyptus camaldulensisDehnh.(Syn. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.) (Eng. River red gum, red gum, Murray red) [145][15]
105Eucalyptus pimpinianaMaiden“Eng. Pimpin mallee, red dune mallee”[146][15]
106Oleaceae (Olive family)Jasminum sambac(L.) Ait.(Eng. Arabian jasmine) الفل[147][15]
107Olea europaeaL. subsp. Cuspidata(Wall. Ex G. Don) ciferri (Eng. Olive tree) (Arb. ‘Itm, mitan) [148][21]
108Plantaginaceae (Plantain family) Plantago amplexicaulisCav.(Eng. Ispaghula, Plantain, rablat al mistah, lesan al hamal) (Arb. gerenwa, rabl, aynsum, khannanit an na’ja) [79][15,21,22]
109Plantago boissieriHausskn. and Bornm.(Arb. Rabl, yanam) [149][15,21,22]
110Poaceae/Gramineae (Gramineae, true grasses family) Cenchrus ciliarisL.(Eng. Buffelgrass, African foxtail grass, sand-burr) (Arb. Sadat, khadir, thumum, gharaz, drab, labaytad) [79][15,21,32,34]
111Cynodon dactylon(L.) Pers.(Eng. Bermudagrass, dubo, dog’s tooth grass, Bahama grass, devil’s grass, couch grass) (Arb. Thi’il, negil “najiel”, najm, sheel, bizait) [150,151][15,21,34]
112Desmostachya bipinnata(L.) Stapf(Eng. Halfa grass, big cordgrass, salt reedgrass) (Arb. Halfa, hafla and sanaiba) [152][15,21,34]
113Lolium rigidumGaudin(Eng. Wimmera ryegrass, Swiss rye grass) (Arb. Hayyaban, shilm, ziwan, simbil, rabiya) [153][15,21]
114Cymbopogon commutatus(Steud.) Stapf (Syn. Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf.) (Eng. Incense grass, Rosagrass) (Arb. Alklathgar, sakhbar, hamra, idhkhir, khasaab) [154][15,21,22,34]
115Cymbopogon jwarancusasubsp. olivieri (Boiss.)(Eng. Oilgrass, iwarancusa grass) [155][20,21]
116Cymbopogon schoenanthus(L.) Spreng.(Eng. Camel grass, camel’s hay, fever grass, geranium grass, West Indian lemon grass) (Arb. Adlghar, hashmah) [155,156][15,21,22,24,28,34]
117Polygonaceae (buckwheat family)Calligonum comosumL’Her.(Synonym: Calligonum polygonoides subsp. comosum (L‘Her.) Soskov) (Eng. Fire bush) (Arb. Arta, waragaat as-shams, ‘abal, dhakar) [157,158,159][15,21,22,24,28]
118Rumex vesicariusL.(Eng. Sorrel, Bladder dock, Rosy dock, Ruby dock) (Arb. Humayth “hommeid, hummad, hambad”, hambasees) [160][15,21,22,24,28]
119Ranunculaceae (Buttercup, crowfoot family) Nigella sativaL.(Eng. Black seed, black cumin) [161][24]
120Rhamnaceae (Buckthorn Family) Ziziphus jujubaMill.(Eng. Chinese date, jujube) [162][15]
121Ziziphus spina-christi(L.) Willd.(Eng. Christ’s thorn jujube, Christ’s torn, nabk tree) (Arb. Sidr, ber, ‘ilb, zaqa) [163][15,21,22,28]
122Rubiaceae (coffee, Rue, madder, bedstraw family)Galium tricornutumDandy(Eng. Rough corn bedstraw, roughfruit corn bedstraw and corn cleavers)[164][21]
123Rutaceae (Rue, citrus family) Haplophyllum tuberculatum(For.) A. Juss.(Syn. Haplophyllum arabicum) (Eng. Sazab, zeita, kheisa, mesaika) (Arb. Srayu’u asraw, mekhiseh “Umm musayka”, kirkhan, zuqayqah, furaythah, zifra al-tais, sinam al-tais. Khaisa, sjaharet al-ba’ud, sjaharet al-ghazal, tafar al-tays, khokhawot, mekhisat al-hamr) [165][15,21,22,28]
124Ruta chalepensisL.(Eng. Rue, fringed rue) [166][22,24]
125Salvadoraceae/Salourloruceae Salvadora persicaL.(Eng. Toothbrush tree, mustard tree, mustard bush) (Arb. Suwak, rak, (‘arak, yeharayk, ehereek) [167,168][15,21,22,24,28]
126Solanaceae (Nightshade family)Withania somnifera(L.) Dunal.(Eng. Ashwagandha, Indian ginseng, poison gooseberry, winter cherry) (Arb. Babu “ebab”, sumal far, haml balbool, morgan, simm, frakh) [169][21]
127Tamaricaceae (Tamarisk family) Tamarix nilotica(Ehrenb.) Bunge(Syn. Tamarix mannifera (Ehrenb.) Bunge (h)/Tamarix arabica Bunge) (Eng. Nile tamarisk) (Arb. tarfa’, “terfat”, athl) [170][15,21,22,26,28]
128Verbenaceae (Verbena, vervain family) Clerodendrum inerme(L.) Gaertn.(Eng. Vanajai, garden quinine) [171][15]
129Lantana camaraL.(Eng. Tickberry) [172,173][15]
130Phyla nodiflora(L.) Greene(Syn. Phyla nodiflora/Lippia (Phyla) nodiflora (L.) Greene/Phylain nodiflora/Lippia nodiflora (L.) Mychx.) (Arb. Berbin al-jedi, herum dezen, thayyel sini, lebbia, farfakh) [174][15,21]
131Vitex agnus-castus L. L.(Eng. Chaste tree) [175,176][20,21,22]
132Avicennia marina(Forssk.) Vierh.(Syn. Avicennia marina L.) (Eng. Grey mangrove, white mangrove) (Arb. Qurm, gurm) [177][15,21,22,28]
133ViolaceaeViola odorataL.(Eng. Sweet violet, garden violet, common blue violet, viol, viotea) [178,179][24]
134Zingiberaceae (Ginger family)Alpinia galanga(L.) Sw(Eng. Greater galangal, thai galangal, blue ginger, thai ginger) [180,181][24]
135Zingiber officinaleRoscoe(Eng. Ginger) [182][24]
136Zygophyllaceae (Caltrop, bean-caper, creosote-bush family) Peganum harmalaL.(Eng. African rue, Syrian rue, wild rue, harmal shrub, harmel, isband, ozallalk, steppenraute) [183][24]
137Tribulus parvispinusPresl(Syn. Tribulus terrestris) (Eng. Puncture vine, Land caltrops, puncture vine) (Arb. Shershir, kuteb “qatb”, hisek, badl, shuraysah, shiqshiq, dreiss) [184][15,21]
Table
Table 2. The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae Family.
Table 2. The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae Family.
No.Botanical Name
(Syn./Eng./Arb. Names)		FormLife FormLife CycleEconomic ValueFolk MedicineReferences
1Anthemis odontostephana Boiss.
(Arb. O’qhowan) 		HThAArom, EOs * [52,186,187]
2Artemisia sieberi Besser (Eng. Wormwood)H/SChPMed, Arom, Eos *, Flav!, Cosm!(+) (UAE)[188]
3Calendula arvensis L. (Eng. Field marigold)
(Arb. Ain el baqr, eqhwan-asfar, hanwa, hanuwa) 		HThAMed, Fod, Nutr, EOs, Cosm(+)[54,189]
4Cichorium intybus L. (Eng. Blue daisy, blue dandelion, blue sailors, blue weed, bunk, coffeeweed) (Arb. hindibaa bareeya, chicoria) HChPMed, Flav, Forg, EOs, Lands(+) (Europe: “R”: Are aromatic and used with coffee as a substitute) (UAE: “L”: Boiled in water as fever treatment + “Fr”: Eaten to treat headache and boiled in water for treating jaundice)[55,190]
5Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.
(Syn. Conyza linifolia (Willd.) Tackh) (Eng. Flax-leaf Fleabane, Wavy-leaf Fleabane, hairy fleabane)
(Arb. hashishat el-jebal, tebaq)		H/WThA/B/PMed,
EOs		(+)[191,192]
6Eclipta prostrata L. (Syn. Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.) (Eng. False daisy, Trailing eclipta )
(Arb. Sa’ada, sauweid, masadate) 		H/WThAMed, Arom, EOs(+) (China: Herbal medicine) (North Africa: Juice of fresh plant applied to scalp to improve hair growth)[57]
7Grantia aucheri Boiss.HHeAMed, EOs(+) (Pakistan: “W”: for snake and scorpion bite)[58,193]
8Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. (Eng. Hawwa Baqrah ara, hindabah ara, huwah ara, naked launea) (Arb. Huwah al ghazal, safara, huwah, hindabah) HChA/PMed, EOs(+)[59,60]
9Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip.
(Eng. Golden chamomile) (Arb. Babunaj) 		HThAMed, Arom *, Eos *, Cosm *(+) (As a carminative and anti-inflammatory) (Used in ointments and lotions) (As a mouthwash against infections of mouth and gums) (chamomile essential oils “true chamomile oil”: for aromatherapy) (UAE: Medicinal tea. “Fl”: To treat abdominal complains)[194]
10Matricaria chamomilla L. (Syn. Matricaria recutita) (Eng. Chamomile, camomile, german chamomile) HThAMed, Nutr, Arom, Eos *(+) (Saudi Arabia: “Fl”: as antibacterial) (Jordan: to treat various diseases “e.g., inflammation and cancer”)[107,195]
11Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser and Lack
(Eng. Pluchea) (Arb. godot) 		HChPMed, Arom, Eos *, Cosm(+) (UAE: To treat skin and as doedorant) (“W”: Boiled to treat skin ailments + “L”: Extract used as ear drops + “L”: Fresh “L” rubbed on body as deodorant)[64,66]
12Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. (Syn. Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf., Baccharis dioscoridis L.)
(Eng. Ploughmans spikenard, marsh fleabane)
(Arb. Sahikee, barnof)		S/TChPMed *, Arom, EOs(+) (Many Important Applications) (UAE)[65,66]
13Pluchea ovalis (pers.) DC.
(Eng. Woolly camphor-weed)		S/TPhA/PMed *, Arom, EOs(+) (UAE)[66]
14Pseudognaphalium luteo-album (L.) H. and B. (Syn. Gnaphalium luteo-album L.) (Eng. Cudweed)
(Arb. sabount el’afrit)		F/HThAEOs(+)[67]
15Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass. (Syn. Inula arabica L./Pulicaria elata Boiss./Pulicaria laniceps Bornm.) (Arb. Iqat, abu ‘ain safra)HHeA/PEOs.[7]
16Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. and Spach (Arb. Thal, fal, shajarat fal, muhayda, mithidi, shajarat al-mithidi, shneena, zayyan) SChPArom *, EOs, Oth * [7]
17Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC.SChPMed, Fod, Forg, Arom, EOs, Fuel(+)[69,70,71]
18Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Meyer (Syn. Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Benth.) (Eng. Crisp-leaved fleabane) (Arb. Gathgeth, jithjath, ‘urayfijan) H/SChA/PMed *, Fod, Forg, Arom, Eos *, Fuel(+) (Dropsy, swelling, edema, gout, febrifuges, painkillers) (Egypt: To treat measles and repel insects)[196]
19Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (Eng. Rhanterium) (Arb. Arfaj) SChpForg *, Flav, EOs, Fuel [197]
20Senecio glaucus L. ssp. coronopifolius (Maire) Al. (Syn. Senecio desfontanei Druce) (Eng. Maire alexander, buck’s horn groundsel) (Arb. Qorreis, murair, zamlooq, shakhees, rejel al ghurab) HThAArom, Eos * [198]
21Seriphidium herba-alba (Asso) Sojak (Syn. Artemisia herba-alba Asso/Artemisia inculta Del) (Eng. Wormwood, white wormwood) (Arb. Ata, ghata, shih) SPhPMed, Eos *, FPre!(+) (Tunisia) (Inhaling smoke thought to be beneficial for both man and animals) (“Sh”: Young “Sh” eaten by mountain travellers) (Many applications) (UAE: “L”: Crushed as a worm treatment and to combat fevers + Many applications)[76]
22Sphagneticola trilobata (Syn. Wedelia paludosa DC.) (Eng. Singapore daisy, creeping-oxeye, trailing daisy, wedelia)HChPMed, EOs, Lands *(+) (Brazil)[75,77]
Table
Table 3. The UAE EO-bearing species of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae Family.
Table 3. The UAE EO-bearing species of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae Family.
No.Botanical Name
(Syn./Eng./Arb. Names)		FormLife FormLife CycleEconomic ValueFolk MedicineReferences
1Alhagi maurorum Medik. (Syn. Alhagi graecorum Boiss.) (Eng. Camelthorn, camelthorn-bush, caspian manna, persian mannaplant) (Arb. Shwaika, agool, heidj) H/SHe/NaPMed,
EOs, Biof		(+) (Infusion of plant or plant juice used to treat worm infestations, cataract, jaundicem migraine, arthritis, constipation) (“R”: Green “R” boiled and taken as tea with lime, as an aphrodisiac and to treat kidney disease) (UAE)[113]
2Lotus halophilus Boiss. and Spruner (Eng. Greater bird’s foot trefoi) (Arb. Horbeith “hurbuth”, garn al ghazal, ‘asheb al ghanem) V!/HThA/PMed, Fod, Forg, EOs, Lands(+) (Qatar: as tonic and sedative)[79,89]
3Medicago polymorpha L. (Eng. California burclover, toothed bur clover, toothed medick, burr medic) F/WThAMed *, Fod, Forg, EOs, Eco, Lands(+) (India: for medicinal purposes for skin plagues and dysentery) (Bolivia: for medicinal purposes since 16 century) (Italy: for treating rheumatic pains, wounds and still used until today)[115]
4Medicago sativa L. (Eng. Alfalfa, lucerne) HHePMed *, Forg *, EOs, Eco(+) (Great therapeutic benefits) (Used for boosting energy levels)[116]
5Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. (Eng. least snout-bean, burn-mouth-vine and jumby bean) (Arb. Baql)V/HChPMed, EOs(+) (Saudi Arabia: Used as abortive) (UAE)[116,117]
6Tephrosia persica Boiss. (Syn. Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) DC.) (Arb. Dhafra, omayye, nafal)H/SChPMed, Arom, Eos *(+) (“L”: Boiled with water used as eardrops for earache + “Bk”: Powdered and mixed with water put into camel’s ears to remove ticks + “L”: Powdered, heated and mixed as a paste with water and/or salt and applied on wounds and fractures to relieve pain) (UAE)[118]
7Trigonella hamosa L. (Eng. Branched fenugreek, egyptian fenugreek) (Arb. Nafal, qutifa, qirqas, darjal, eshb al-malik, qurt) H ThAMed, Forg, Flav, EOs(+)[79]
8Ononis sicula Guss.HThAEOs.[119]
9Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Syn. Acacia Arabica (Lam.) Willd.) (Eng. Gum arabic tree, babul/kikar, egyptian thorn, sant tree, al-sant, prickly acacia)
(Arb. Sunt garath “kurut”, babul, tulh. Fruit: karat) 		TPhPMed *, EOs, Lands(+) (Pearl drivers used to apply an infusion of fruits to skin after dives) (“L”: Poultice of “L” used to treat joint pains) (Resin mixed with egg-white applied to eyes to treat cararacts) (“L”: Eaten to treat diarrhoea) (“Se”: Soaked in water or milk drunk to treat diabetes) (“Pd”: Smoke from burning “Pds” inhaled for colds) (UAE: Applied to soothe burns. “L”: are pounded into a paste and used a poultice on boils and swellings or applied around boils to draw out the pus)[120]
10Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Eng. Umbrella thorn) (Arb. Samr “samur”, salam) S/TPhPMed, Forg, EOs(+) (Mostly yields resin, used as a gum to heal wounds)[122]
11Prosopis farcta (Banks and Sol.) Mac.
(Eng. Dwarf mesquite, syrian mesquite)
(Arb. Yanbut, agoul, awsaj) 		SChPEOs.[123,128]
Table
Table 4. The UAE EO-bearing species of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
Table 4. The UAE EO-bearing species of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
No.Botanical Name
(Syn./Eng./Arb. Names)		FormLife FormLife CycleEconomic ValueFolk MedicineReferences
1Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth.
(Eng. Bian bing cao)		HThAMed *, Eos *(+)[128]
2Mentha spicata (Eng. Spearmint, spear mint)HHePMed, Fod, Flav, Arom *, Eos *(+) (UAE)[199]
3Ocimum forsskaolii Benth.
(Syn. Ocimum forskolei Benth.) (Eng. Rehan, sawma)
(Arb. Basil)		HThA/PMed *, Arom, EOs, Insec, Lands, Oth(+) (Oman: “L”: as deodorant + “L”: Fragnance eases headaches and dizziness + “L”: Crushed and placed in nose to treat colds and in ears to treat earaches + “L”: Juice from young “L” as eye drops or to soothe insect bites) (UAE: “L”: to treat vomiting, against itching)[69,131]
4Salvia aegyptiaca L. (Eng. Egyptian sage) (Arb. Ra’al, na’aim, ghbeisha, shajarat al ghazal, khizam) HCh/ThA/PMed *, Eos *(+) (To treat diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and haemorrhoids) (As demulcent, antispasmodic, cicatrizant, antiseptic and stomachic) (Its non-polar extracts have been tested as antimicrobial) (Nutlets are used in a drink to treat diarrhoea and piles) (UAE)[2]
5Salvia macilenta Boiss. (Eng. Khizama)
(Arb. Khmayzah lethnay, bithman)		HChPMed, Eos *(+)[3]
6Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. (Arb. Shajarat Al Ghazal) HHePMed, Eos *(+)[140,141]
7Salvia mirzayanii Rech.f. and EsfandiariHChPEOs.[200]
8Salvia spinosa L. (Arb. Shajarat al-ghazal)HHePEos *.[136]
9Teucrium polium L. (Eng. Felty germander)H/SThPMed *, Arom, EOs(+) (to treat liver diseases, antispasmodic, antidiabetic and lowering blood lipid) (Many medicinal uses: to treat malaria, insect bites and abscesses) (UAE: “L” and “St”)[137]
10Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. (Eng. Jadah, yadah, Ja‘adah) (Arb. Ya’dah, brair) HChPMed *, Eos *(+) (Many applications in medicine) (Antispasmodic activity) (UAE: Many medicinal applications. Antispasmodic activity. To treat kidney, stomach pains, thyroids problems, common cold)[6]
11Zataria multiflora Boiss. (Eng. Za’atar, shirazi thyme) HChPMed, Flav, Arom, Eos *(+) (UAE: to treat cold, indigestion, toothache)[141]
Table
Table 5. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae.
Table 5. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae.
No.Botanical Name EmiratesImportant LocationsSoilHabitatsFloweringWildlife Status
(Past) vs. (Present)		References
1Anthemis odontostephana Boiss.(RAK, F) (RA)(Sil, Roc) (Mou)Feb. to Apr.(NC) (CO)[15,21]
2Artemisia sieberi Besser.....(CO)[28]
3Calendula arvensis L.(RAK, F, S)(HM, RA)(Sil, Roc)(FF, Mou) Jan. to Mar. June to Nov.(CO) (NC, CO) [15,21]
4Cichorium intybus L.(RAK).(San) (FF)Feb. to Apr.(CO, RA) (RA) [15,21,28]
5Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.(AD)(SL).(Oas, Gar, Plat)Jan. to May.(CO)[21,22]
6Eclipta prostrata L.(F)(SL).(Plat)Dec. to Apr.(NC) (NC)[15,21]
7Grantia aucheri Boiss.(AD)(Ain).(Rod, Wad)Jan. to Apr..[27]
8Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. (AD, Du)(SL)(San) (Oas, Plat)Feb. to Apr.(CO) (NC) [15,21,22]
9Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip.(RAK, F)(RA)(Sil, Roc)(PX, Mou)Feb. to Apr.(CO) (CO)[21,28]
10Matricaria chamomilla L....(Rod!, AF!)..[63]
11Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser and Lack(RAK).(Roc)(Wad, Plat, Wat) Feb. to Apr.(NE) (RA) [28]
12Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC..(WC)(San, Sal)(Cos, Oas, Gar, Urb, AF)Through the year.(CO) (CO)[15,21,22]
13Pluchea ovalis (pers.) DC.(Du)....(NC)[15,21]
14Pseudognaphalium luteo-album (L.) H. and B.(AD)(Ain).(Plat)Feb. to May.(CO)[21,22]
15Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass.(S, F, RAK)(HM).(Wad, Wat, Plat)Feb. to Apr.(NC, CO) (NC, CO) [21]
16Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. and Spach(F, RAK, S, AD)(HM)(Roc)(Plat, Mou)Feb. to Jun.(CO) (CO)[15,21,22]
17Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC.......[21]
18Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Meyer (RAK, AD) (SL)(San, Sil) (Apl, AF)Apr. to Jul. Mar. to Aug.! Mar. to June!(FC) (FC)[15,21,22]
19Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (AD) (Ain, CC, EE, NE)(San, Roc) (Dun, Plat, Apl, Hil) Jan. to May.(CO)[15,21,22]
20Senecio glaucus L. ssp. coronopifolius (Maire) Al. (RAK, UAQ, AD)(CN)(San, Sal) (Cos, FF)Feb. to Apr.(CO) (CO)[15,21,22]
21Seriphidium herba-alba (Asso) Sojak (RAK, F)(RA)(Roc) (PX, Mou)Feb. to Apr.(NC) (CO) [21]
22Sphagneticola trilobata....Through the year. Spring to Autumn!.[15]
Table
Table 6. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae.
Table 6. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae.
No.Botanical Name EmiratesImportant LocationsSoilHabitatsFloweringWildlife Status
(Past) vs. (Present)		References
1Alhagi maurorum Medik. (AD)(SL)(Sal!) (Cos, Dun, Rod, DS)!Mar. to Aug. Apr. to Jul!(CO) (CO)[15,24]
2Lotus halophilus Boiss. and Spruner (AD, RAK)(WC)(San, Sal) (Cos, Dun).(NC) (CO)[15,21,22]
3Medicago polymorpha L. (Du, AD)(SL)(Roc)! (Gar, Plat, Mou, DS)!Feb. to Apr.!(CO)![15,21,22]
4Medicago sativa L. (Du)....(NC)[15]
5Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. (AD)(NE)(San, Roc) (Dun, Wad, Mou)Feb. to May.(LC)[15,21,22]
6Tephrosia persica Boiss. (F, S, RAK) (RA, HM)(San, Roc) (Wad, Mou “low”)Jan. to May.(NC) (CO)[15,21]
7Trigonella hamosa L. (Du, AD)(SL)(San) (Dun, Oas, Gar, Plat)Feb. to Apr.(FC) (NC) [15,21,22]
8Ononis sicula Guss.......[21]
9Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (AD)(EE, NE)(Roc) (Oas, Wad, Plat, Gar, Mou) Mar. to Nov.
Nov. to Apr.!		(CO) (CO)[15,21,22,28]
10Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (AD, S)(EE)(San, Roc) (Pla, Dun. Wad, Mou “medium elevations”)Apr. to Jun. Mar. to July!(FC) (CO) [15,21,22]
11Prosopis farcta (Banks and Sol.) Mac.(AD) (Ain, SL)(San, Roc)(Dun, Plat, Mou)Apr to Aug. Apr to July!(NC) (RA) [15,21,22]
Table
Table 7. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
Table 7. Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
No.Botanical Name EmiratesImportant LocationsSoilHabitatsFloweringWildlife Status
(Past) vs. (Present)		References
1Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. (RAK, F)(RA)(Roc)(Mou “medium and high elevations”)Feb. to Apr.(RA)[21]
2Mentha spicata......[63,130]
3Ocimum forsskaolii Benth.(S, F, RAK) (HM, RA).(Plat)Feb. to Apr.(NE) (NC)[15,21,28]
4Salvia aegyptiaca L. (AD, S, F, RAK) (HM)(Roc)(Wad, Hil “all elevations”, Mou)Feb. to May.(CO) (CO)[15,21,22,24,28]
5Salvia macilenta Boiss. (F, RAK, AD) (EE)(Roc)(Plat, Wad, Hil “low”, Mou)Feb. to May.(CO) (NC, CO)[15,21,22]
6Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. (F, S !, RAK!) (RA! HM!)(Roc) (Wad, Hil, Mou)Feb. to May.(RA)[15,21]
7Salvia mirzayanii Rech.f. and Esfandiari(F, RAK) (RA)(Roc) (Wad, Hil “low”, Mou)Feb to May!(NC)![21]
8Salvia spinosa L. (AD, S, F, RAK)(HM, RA)(Roc) (Rod, Wad, Hil “low to medium elevations”, Mou)Feb. to Apr.!(NC, CO)[21,22]
9Teucrium polium L. (F, RAK)(RA).(Wad, Hil “all elevations”)!Feb. to May.!(NE) (RA)![21,28]
10Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. (F, S, RAK, AD) (HM, RA, KF)(Roc) (Wad, Hil “all elevations”, Mou)Mar. to Apr.! Feb. to May.(CO) (NC, CO)[15,21,22,24,28]
11Zataria multiflora Boiss. ......[24]
Table
Table 8. Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae.
Table 8. Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteraceae/Compositae/Anthemideae.
No.Botanical Name Plant PartPhysical PropertiesYield
(%)		Isolation MethodMain Chemical Groups/ComponentsBiological ActivityReferences
1Anthemis odontostephana Boiss.Fl/L/St/R(Yellow color/Aromatic odor)Fl,HD(0.2) Fl,HD (0.7) Fl,HD (0.5)L,HD (0.7) St,HD (0.2) R,HD HD(Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids)Fl,HD
(Spathulenol, hexadecanoic acid, germacrene D, 1,8-cineole, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, caryophyllene oxide, β-caryophyllene, camphor) Fl,HD
(Borneol) Fl/L/St,HD
(Pentadecanoic acid)R,HD		[AB/AF/AM]Fl/L/St/R,HD
(AB: Gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Corynebacterium glutamicum)Fl/L/St/R,HD
(AF: Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani species complex, Alternaria alternata)Fl/L/St/R,HD		[52,186,187]
2Artemisia sieberi BesserL/ShFresh herbaceous, camphoraceous, earthy odor with a fruity and dried plum-like background(1.7)Sh,HD (1.02)Sh,SD (0.5 to 3.5)Sh,HD (1.6 to 14.0)Sh,SFE HD/SD/SFE (Sesquiterpenes: dehydro-1,8-sesquicineole)Sh
(camphor, camphene, 1,8-cineol, β-thujone, α-pinene)Sh,HD
(camphor, 1,8-Cineol)Sh,SFE
(α- thujone, β- thujone, camphor) (camphor, 1,8-cineole, bornyl acetate, neryl acetate)Sh,SD
(camphene, 1, 8-cineole, trans-thujone, camphor, borneol)Sh,HD
(camphor, 1,8-cineole, bornyl acetate)Sh,SD
(camphor, camphene, 1,8-cineol, β-thujone, α-pinene)L,HD
(camphor, 1,8-cineole, camphene, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, dehydro-1,8-sesquicineole)Sh
(ketone, 1, 8 cineole, selin-11-en-4-a-ol, lavandulon)Sh
(1,8cineol, myrcene, 1,8cineol, Eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ol, 4-tepinyl acetate, davanone, p-cymene)		[AB/AF/AM/FT/AD]
(AB: Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria)
(AM: yeast and fungi)
(AM: Gram-positive bacilli: Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus. Gram-positive cocci: Streptococcus mutans)
(AB: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli)Sh
(FT against insects: Callosobruchus maculatus, Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium castaneum) L,HD
(AF: for patient with Pityriasis versicolor)		[188]
3Calendula arvensis L.Sh.(0.02 to 0.06)Sh,HDHD(γ-cadinene, α-cadinol)Sh,HD.[54,189]
4Cichorium intybus L.Sh/Fl(Yellow color/Strong odor)Sh, HD.HD(carvacrol, thymol, cinnamic aldehyde, camphor, carvone, linalool, α-terpineol)Sh,HD.[55,190]
5Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq.W/Sh/Fl.(0.22)W, SDHD/SD(Sesquiterpenes)HD
(Monoterpenes, acetylenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes)W,SD
(matricaria methyl ester, limonene, manool, carvone)W,SD
((E)-β-farnesene, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, limonene)HD
(matricaria ester, (Z)-nerolidol, caryophyllene oxide)Sh (matricaria ester, caryophyllene oxide, (E)-β-farnesene)Sh (matricaria ester, geranyl acetone, trans-α-bergamotene, limonene)Sh		[AB/AF/AM/IS]HD[191,192]
6Eclipta prostrata L.L/St/Fl/Sh(Yellow color)Sh, HD(0.1)Sh,HDHD(Sesquiteprenoids, straight chain hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids, P-caryophyllene, a-humulene) (hydrocarbons with sesquiterpene predominating, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, oxides, esters)Sh,HD
(α-Humulene, 6,9-heptadecadiene, (E)-β-farnesene, α-phellandrene)Sh,HD (sesquiterpenoids)L
(sesquiteprenoids, straight chain, hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids)St
(P-caryophyllene)L
(a-humulene, (E)-beta-farnesene)St		.[57]
7Grantia aucheri Boiss.Sh.(0.53)Sh,HDHD(Sesquiterpenes: himachalol)Sh,HD.[58,193]
8Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. Sh..SD(limonene, Z-citral, E-citral)Sh,SD[AB/AM]
(AB: Gram-positive bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus. Gram-negative bacteria: Escherichia coli)Sh,SD		[59,60]
9Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip. Fl.(0.63)Fl,HDHD(α-bisabolene oxide A, α-bisabolol oxide A, chamazolene)Fl,HD.[194]
10Matricaria chamomilla L. Sh/Fl(Dark blue color/Strong characteristic odor)Fl,HD(0.626 to 0.754)Fl,HD (0.25)Fl,SD (0.73)Fl,HD (4.33)Fl,SFEHD/SD/SDE/SFE(azulene-7-ethyl-1,4-dimethyl, limonene, bisabolol oxides A and B, bisabolone oxide, trans-β-farnesen, isobornyl isobutyrate<8-isobutyryloxy>)Fl,HD
(α-bisabolol, trans-trans-farnesol, cis-β-farnesene, guaiazulene, α-cubebene, α-bisabolol oxide A, chamazulene)Fl,SD (Guaiazulene, (E)-β-faranesens, chamazulene, α-bisabolol oxide B, α-bisabolol, hexadecanole)Fl,HD
(Trans-anethole, estragole, fenchone, limonene)Fl,HD
((-)-α-bisabolol, chamazulene, (-)-α-bisabololoxides)Fl (chamazulene, cis-spiroether, trans-spiroether)Fl,SD
(α-bisabolol oxide A and B, (E)-β-farnesene, α-bisabolol, chamazulene)Fl,HD
(Sesquiterpenoid)Fl,SDE
(Bisabolol oxide, bisabolon oxide, β-farnesense, α-bisabolol, chamazulene and en-yn-dicycloether)Fl,SDE
(bisabolol oxide A, α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide B, cis-enyne-bicycloether, bisabolon oxide A, chamazulene, spathulenol, (E)-β-farnesene)
(β-farnesene, α-farnesene, γ-cadinene, α-bisabolol oxide B, α-bisabolol, chamazulene, α-bisabolol oxide A, cis, trans-dicycloether)Fl,SFE
((E)-β-farnesene, guaiazulene, α-bisabolol oxide A, α-farnesene, α-bisabolol)Sh		[AB/AF/AM/AO/AS]
(AF: Aspergillus niger)Fl,SD
(AB: Streptoccus pygenes, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus faecalis, Streptococcus sanguis)Fl,HD
(AM: Aspergillus flavus, Candida albicans, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus)Fl,HD
[107,195]
11Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser and LackSh/Fl.(0.08)Sh,SDSD(Sesquiterpene)Sh,SD
(δ-cadinol, 9-(1-methylethylidene)-bicyclo[6.1.0]nonane, caryophyllene oxide, methyleugenol, β-caryophyllene)Sh,SD
(godotol A and godotol B)		[AB/AM]
(AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans, Bacillus subtilis)Sh,SD		[64,66]
12Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. L..HD(Monoterpenes, light oxygenated compounds, sesquiterpenes, heavy oxygenated compounds)L,HD (Farnesol cis-trans, farnesol, nuciferol, trans-cadinol, eudesmol, methyl eicosane)L,HD (Farnesol,
uiterpene alcohols, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons)		[AO/AB/AM]!L!,HD!
(AB: Gram-positive bacteria; Gram-negative bacteria)!L!,HD!
(AM: Mycotic infection with C. albicans)!L!,HD!		[65,66]
13Pluchea ovalis (pers.) DC. L .(0.02)L,SDSD (limonene, p-cymene, ß-maaliene, ß-phellandrene, isocomene Laggera aurita, 2,5-dimetoxy-p-cymene, ß-caryophyllene, δ-cadinene, α-cadinol)L,SD.[66]
14Pseudognaphalium luteo-album (L.) H. and B. Sh!..MD(Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, liphatic compounds, fatty acids, esters)Sh!,Microdistillation! (decanal, β-caryophyllene, α-gurjunene)Sh!,Microdistillation!.[67]
15Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass. Sh..SD(Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, alcohols)Sh,SD [7]
16Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. and SpachSh/Fl.(0.5)Sh,SDSD(sesquiterpenes)Sh,SD (p-elemene, 7-cadinol, a-cadinol)Sh,SD [7,197]
17Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC.L/Sh/W(Strong odor)W, HD(0.5)W,HDHD/SD(2-Cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methyl), Benzene, methyl-, Z.citol)L,HD (2-Cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methyl) with Hexadecanoic acid (CAS), Ethane, 1,2-diethoxy)W,HD (2-cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1-methyl), benzene, methyl-)Sh,SD[AB/AM]Sh,HD!/SD!
(AB: G+: Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis; G-: Escherichia coli)Sh,HD!/SD!
(AM: against yeast: Candida albicans)Sh,HD!/SD!		[69,70,71]
18Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Meyer Sh.(2.5)Sh,SD (0.32)Sh,HDHD/SD(Phenolic compounds, monoterpene hydrocarbons, low in sesquiterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,SD (oxygenated monoterpenes:carvotanacetone. Sesquiterpene lactone, δ-cadinene, α-elemene, sabinol) (1,8-cineole)Sh,HD ((+)-carvotanacetone)Sh,SDAB!/R![196]
19Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. Sh!/Fl!.0.25!HD!(Terpenoids, Non-terpenoid aliphatic and aromatic structures) (terpenoids: α-phellandrene, linalol, geraniol, bulnesol) (α-phellandrene, linalol, geraniol, bulnesol, β-phellandrene).[197]
20Senecio glaucus L. ssp. coronopifolius (Maire) Al. Sh!/Fl!/Fr!(Apricot-like odor “while the odor of the intact plant is herbaceous, spicy and floral fruity”)SD/H.SD/H(Monoterpenes,Sesquiterpenes)SD/H (myrcene, dehydrofukinone)SD/H.[198]
21Seriphidium herba-alba (Asso) Sojak L/Fl/Sh(Yellow color)L/Fl,HD(1.45)L/Fl, HDHD(Oxygenated monoterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenes)L/Fl,HD
(cis-chrysantenyl acetate, the sabinyl acetate and the α-thujone)L/Fl,HD		[AB/AF/AM]Sh,HD
[AO/AM]L/Fl,HD
(AM: S. typhimurium, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, E. faecalis, B. cereus, F. solani, A. oxysporum)L/Fl,HD		[76]
22Sphagneticola trilobataL/St/Fl/Sh.(0.48 to 0.78)Sh, HD (0.18 to 0.25)Sh, HD (0.09)HD/SD(Hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, hydrocarbon monoterpenes, low levels of oxygenated sesquiterpenes)Sh,HD
(α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, γ-muurolene)L
(germacrene D, α-phellandrene, α-pinene, E-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene, limonene, α-humulene)Sh,HD
(α-pinene, α-phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, β-pinene, camphene, 10-nor-calamenen-10-one, germacrene D, γ-amorphene)Sh,HD		.[75,77]
Table
Table 9. Details of EOs isolated from species of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae.
Table 9. Details of EOs isolated from species of Fabaceae/Leguminosae/Papilionoideae.
No.Botanical Name Plant PartPhysical PropertiesYield
(%)		Isolation MethodMain Chemical Groups/ComponentsBiological ActivityReferences
1Alhagi maurorum Medik. L/St ..DSD(Ketones, acid derivatives, terpenoids, hydrocarbons)L/St,DSD
(heterocyclics compunds)L,DSD (drimenol, 9-octylleptadecane, 4-hexyl-2,5-dioxo-3-furanacetic acid, 2-nonadecanone, pentacosane)L,DSD
(Aldehydes)St,DSD (neophytadiene,trans-b-ionone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, actinidiolide, nonacosane)St,DSD
(drimenol, octadecane, eicosane, docosane, tetracosane, squalene)L/St,DSD		.[113]
2Lotus halophilus Boiss. and Spruner Sh(Yellow color)Sh,SD(0.07 “fresh weight basis”)Sh,SDSD(phytol, Heptadecane, 2,9-Dimethyldecane)Sh,SD.[79,89]
3Medicago polymorpha L. ..(0.5)HDHD(Terpenoids, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, esters, hydrocarbons, high amount of fatty acids, benzene compounds)HD
(Undecanoic acid, 2-dodecanone, hexadecanoic acid, oleic acid, tetracosane)HD		.[115]
4Medicago sativa L. Fl..TT(Alcohols, esters, ketones, terpenes, furanoids)Fl,TT
(Trans-2-hexenal)Fl,TT		.[116]
5Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. L.(0.18)L,SDSD(isopropyl toluene, O-cymene, camphene, limonene, 2- β-pinene, α-terpinolene, α-pinene, myrcene)L,SD[AB] [AB/AF/AM/AO]L,SD (AB: A. calcoaceticus, B. subtilis, C. freundii, C. sporogenes, Escherichia coli, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, S. typhii, Staphylococcus aureus, Y. enterocolitica)L,SD (AF: Candida albicans, A. niger, A. flavus, P. notatum)L,SD[116,117]
6Tephrosia persica Boiss.L /St.(0.05 “fresh weight basis”)L/St,HDHD(Sesquiterpenoids, monoterpenoids)L/St,HD
(germacrene D, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, trans-β-caryophyllene)L,HD
(germacrene D, geyrene, trans-β-caryophyllene, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide)St,HD		(AM/IS)![118]
7Trigonella hamosa L.Sh(Yellow color)Sh,SD(0.04 “on fresh weight basis”)Sh,SDSD or HD!(Palmitic acid, tetradecanoic acid, linolenic acid methyl ester, phytol, decanoic acid)Sh,SD.[79]
8Ononis sicula Guss.....(Oxygenated sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons) (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: selin-11-en-4-α-ol, α-selinene)[AO][119]
9Acacia nilotica (L.) DelileSt/Pd/Bk.(0.08)St,HD (4.56)Pd,SFE(4.86,5.05)Bk,SFEHD/SFE(Monoterpenoid compounds, sesquiterpenes)St,HD
(Monoterpenoid compounds: menthol, limonene. α-Curcumene, carvacrol)St,HD		[AB/AF/AM]
(AB: Bacillus subtilis)Pd!/Bk!,SFE
(AF: Ganoderma lucidum)Pd!/Bk!,SFE		[120]
10Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne L(Yellow–green color)L,GC-FID(0.12)L,GC-FIDGC-FID(Monoterpenes, rich sesquiterpenoid compounds)L,GC-FID
(α-humulene, α-cadinol, nerolidol, γ-cadinene, 2-(E)-octenal)L,GC-FID		.[122]
11Prosopis farcta (Banks and Sol.) Mac.St/Pd/L/Fl/Se/R/W(Pleasant odor)W,SD(0.00472 to 0.00793)W, SDSD(Saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated hydrocarbons, aldehydes, carboxylic acids)Sh,SD
(Heneicosane, 6,10,14-Trimethylpentadecan-2-one, Docosane, 2-Methyl-1-tertiobutilprop-1,3-yl-, D-Limonene, Methyl hexadecanoate)St,SD (Phytol, Benzyl benzoate, 3-Hydroxy-beta-damascone)L,SD
(Phytol, Tetradeca-1,13-diene, Eicosane)Fl,SD
(Methyl octadec-9-enoate, Phytol, Methyl hexadecanoate)Pd,SD
(Octadecanal, Hexadecanal, Heptadeca-1, 11,13-triene)R,SD		.[122,128]
Table
Table 10. Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
Table 10. Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/Labiatae.
No.Botanical Name Plant PartPhysical PropertiesYield
(%)		Isolation MethodMain Chemical Groups/ComponentsBiological ActivityReferences
1Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. L/St/Fl/Sh..HD(trans-pinocarvyl acetate, pinocarvone, β-pinene, (E)-β-ocimene, terpinolene, linalool, trans- pinocarveol, 3-thujen-2-one, myrtenal, verbenone, trans-carveol, cis-carveol, pulegone, carvacrol, dihydrocarvyl acetate, β-cubebene)Sh,HD[ AB/AF/AM]Sh,HD
(AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae)Sh,HD (AF: Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger)Sh,HD		[128]
2Mentha spicataL/Sh(Light green color)L,HD(0.53)Sh,HD (0.566 ± 0.02 “on fresh weight basis”)L,HD (1.2)Sh,HD!orSD! (0.1 to 1.8)Sh!orL! (0.9)Sh,SD (0.32)Sh,SD SFE HD/SD/SFE (Oxygenated, non-oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes)SD (carvacrol, thymol)
(Carvone, Trans carveol)Sh,HD
(piperitone oxide, piperitenone oxide, carvone, dihydrocarvone)L,HD
(carvone, limonene, 1,8-cineole, trans-carveol)L,HD
(carvone, cis-carveol, limonene, 1,8 cineol, cis-dihydrocarvone, carvyl acetate, cis-sabinene hydrate)Sh,HD!or SD!
(carvone, menthone)HD
(linalool, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, 1,8 cineole)Sh!orL! (menthol, menthone) (carvone, limonene, 1,8-cineole, menthone, linalool, isomenthone)Sh,SD (piperitenone oxide)Sh,SD
(menthol, carvone, D-Limonene)L,HD (piperitenone oxide)Sh,HD
(carvone, cis-carveol, limonene)L (Carvone, Limonene, Cineole, Linalool, Menthol, Dihydrocarvone)SD
(Carvone, Limonene, a-pinene, Cineole, Linalool, Menthol, Dihydrocarvone)SFE		[AB/AF/AM/AO/IS/MP]Sh,HD!orSD!
[IS/LA/MR]L (LA and MR: against Culex quinquefasciatus, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles stephensi)L
(AO: good activity)Sh,HD!orSD! (AO: good activity)L,HD
(strong AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pasturella multocida)Sh,HD!orSD! (strong AF: Aspergillus niger, Mucor mucedo, Fusarium solani, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Rhizopus solani)Sh,HD!orSD!
(AM: Enterococcus faecium, Salmonella cholerasuis, B. subtilis)Sh,SD 		[199]
3Ocimum forsskaolii Benth. L/Fl/Sh.(0.45 to 0.47)L,SD (0.6 to 0.96)Fl,SDHD/SD/H(estragole, linalool)L/Fl/Sh,SD
(linalool, methyl chavicol, (E)-methyl cinnamate, myrcene, eugenol)
((R)-(-)-linalool, (S)-(+)-1-octen-3-ol, trans-caryophyllene, naphthalene,
methyl salicylate, (R)-(-)-a-copaene, methyl cinnamate, (E)-ocimene)
(benzene, methyl-)Sh,SD
(Bicyclo hept-2-ene, 2, naphthalene, phytol)Sh,SD		[AB/AF/AM]L,SD [AO]Sh,SD (MR: against female Anopheles gambiae)Sh,HD
(MR: Aedes aegypti)H
(weak AF: against Dermatophytes)L,SD
(AM: Candida albicans)Sh,SD		[69,131]
4Salvia aegyptiaca L. W(Yellow color/same plant odor)W,SD(0.033!)W, SDSD(Terpenoidal constituents, fat derivatives)W,SD
(Aristolene, diphenyl amine, methyl palmitate)W,SD		.[2]
5Salvia macilenta Boiss. Sh/W..HD(Rich in monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,HD
(γ-elemene, thymol, elemol, β-caryophyllene)Sh,HD		.[3]
6Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. Sh(Yellow color)Sh,HD(0.14)Sh, HD (0.14 to 0.23)Sh, HD (0.5)Sh,HDHD/SD(Sesquiterpenes, α-Gurjunene, β-Cubebene, Germacrene-B)SD
(linalool, hexyl hexanoate, hexyl isovalerate, hexyl-2-methyl-butanoate, sclareol, hexyl octanoate)Sh,HD
(δ–Cadinen and Sclareol, Franesol, δ-Amorphene Caryophyllene oxide, Hexyl octanoate, Beta Eudesmol, α-Bisabolol, α-Muurolol, Decanoic acid, Manoyl oxide, Manool)Sh,HD
(Sclareol, (+) Spathulenol, (-)-Aristolenel, β-Elemene, Hexyl n-valerate, Germacrene D, β-Eudesmol)Sh,HD (linalool, hexil isovalrate, hexil 2-methyl buterat, δ-cadinen) (piperitone)		[AM] (AM: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermidis)[140,141]
7Salvia mirzayanii Rech.f. and EsfandiariSh(Yellow color)Sh,HD (2.2)Sh,HD (11.2)MW (0.50 to 9.67)SFE HD/MW/SFE (linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, linalool, 8-acetoxy linalool)HD/SFE
(linalyl acetate, linalool, 1,8-cineol, 8-acetoxy, linalool, a-terpineole, E-anethole, d-cadinene)HD
(linalyl acetate)SFE
(spathulenol, γ-cadinene, linalool, α-terpinyl acetate, α-cadinol, β-eudesmol, cubenol, linalyl acetate)Sh,HD
(α-terpinenyl acetate, 1,8-cineol, linalool)Sh
(linalyl acetate, linalool, α-terpinyl acetate, 1,8–cineol, α-terpineol, δ-cadinene)HD		[AM]Sh [AB] (AM: good activity)Sh (AB: against E.coli, S.aureus, K.pneumonia, B.subtilis, P.aeroginosa)[200]
8Salvia spinosa L. Sh(Yellow color)Sh,HD(0.2)Sh,HD (0.02)Sh, HDHD/SD(High amounts of monoterpene derivatives, low amounts of sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids, aliphatic esters)Sh,HD (thymol)Sh,HD
(1,8-cineol, (z)-β-ocimene, germacrene d, 2-Butyl thiophene, trans caryophyllene, 3-Butyl thiophene)Sh,HD
((E)-β-ocimene, β-caryophyllene, isopentyl isovalerate)Sh,SD		[AB/AM]Sh,HD
(AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Basillus subtilis, Psedomonas aeruginosa)Sh,HD		[136]
9Teucrium polium L. L/St/Sh(Yellow color)Sh,SD(0.8 ± 0.04)Sh, HD (0.8) (1.7) (0.2)Sh,HD (0.75)L/St,HD (1.2)Sh,HD (0.21)Sh, SD SFE HD/SD/SFE(Sesquiterpenes, Germacrene D, β-caryophyllene)HD/SFE (terpenoidal compounds, rich in alcohols, esters) (8-cedren-13-ol, β-caryophllene, germacrene D, sabinene)Sh,HD
(α-pinene, β-pinene, p-cymene) (α-cadinol, 3β-hydroxy-α-muurolene, α-pinene, β-pinene)Sh,HD
(β-pinene, limonene, α-phellandrene and γ- and δ-cadinenes. Alcohols: linalool, terpine-4-ol, cedrol, cedrenol, guaiol) (a-pinene, linalool, caryophyllene oxide, b-pinene, b-caryophyllene)L/St,HD (germacrene D, bicyclogermacrene, ß-pinene, carvacrol)Sh,SD
(β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, α-pinene, caryophyllene oxide, myrcene, germacrene-D)Sh		[GP]Sh,HD [ASP] [ASP]Sh,HD [AB]HD [moderate AM]Sh,SD
(AB: against Bacillus cereus)HD (AM: moderate effect against Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus)Sh,SD		[137]
10Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. Sh/Fl(Light yellow color)Sh, HD(0.34)Sh, HD (0.4)Sh,HDHD(Sesquiterpenoids rich, cis-sesquisabinene hydrate rich, epi-β-bisabolol, guaiol, β-eudesmol, monoterpenoids rich)Sh,HD
(a-cadinol, 6-cadinene, seychellene, P-caryophyllene, germacrene-D-4-01, germacrene D, γ-cadinene, a-muurolene, valencene)Sh,HD
(camphene, α-cadinol, myrcene, carvacrol)HD
(Monoterpenoids: α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, sabinene)Sh,HD		[AN]Sh,HD[6]
11Zataria multiflora Boiss. L/Sh.(3)SD (2.8)HD (1.59 ± 0.86 to 0.99 ± 0.29)Sh,
HD
(1.66, 1.71, 2.8) (0.82 to 0.97)Sh,HD (3.66, 3.44)MW 		HD/SD/MW/SFE(Rich oxygenated monoterpens)Sh,HD (phenolic monoterpenes, glycosides of monoterpenes, polyhydroxy monoterpenes, benzoic acid derivatives, alkanes, β-sitosterol, betulin, fatty acids, oleanolic acid)
(thymol, λ-terpinene, ρ-cymene)SD/SFE (carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, linalool, α-terpineol)
(thymol, carvacrol, para-cymene, c-terpinene, b-caryophyllene)HD
(Thymol, carvacrol, ρ-cymene)Sh,HD (thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, linalool, γ-terpinene) (γ-terpinene, α-pinene, eucaliptol, globulol)SD
(oxygen-containing monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hyrocarbons, monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh
(linalol, linalyl acetate, β-caryophyllene)Sh (thymol, a phenolic compound of oxygenated monoterpens)Sh,HD
(carvacrol, thymol, linalool, p-cymene)Sh,HD		[IS]Sh [AB/AO]HD [AF]SD [AF]Sh,HD [AM]Sh,SD
[strong AO]Sh,HD [CE]
(AB: strong activity especially against G-bacteria. Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, Seratia marcescens, Shigella flexneri)HD
(AB: Staphylococcus aureus)Sh,HD (IS: against Rhyzopertha dominica, Togoderma granarium)Sh
(AF: against aflatoxin by Aspergillus flavus)SD
(AM: Bacillus cereus, Salmonella Typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus)Sh,SD
(AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli)L
(G+: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis. G-: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Escherichia coli. Pathogenic yeasts: Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis)Sh,HD		[141]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Shahin, S.M.; Jaleel, A.; Alyafei, M.A.M. The Essential Oil-Bearing Plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): An Overview. Molecules 2021, 26, 6486. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216486

AMA Style

Shahin SM, Jaleel A, Alyafei MAM. The Essential Oil-Bearing Plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): An Overview. Molecules. 2021; 26(21):6486. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216486

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shahin, Suzan Marwan, Abdul Jaleel, and Mohammed Abdul Muhsen Alyafei. 2021. "The Essential Oil-Bearing Plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): An Overview" Molecules 26, no. 21: 6486. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216486

APA Style

Shahin, S. M., Jaleel, A., & Alyafei, M. A. M. (2021). The Essential Oil-Bearing Plants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): An Overview. Molecules, 26(21), 6486. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216486

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop