Radiotracers for Bone Marrow Infection Imaging
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Radionuclides in Nuclear Medicine Imaging
3. Established Radiotracers for Bone Infection
3.1. Gallium-Citrate (Based on Ga-67)
- Increased vascular permeability of the inflammatory tissue, allowing transferrin proteins (and thereby [67Ga]Ga-transferrin) to accumulate in the tissue.
- Uptake by leukocytes, where gallium binds to lactoferrin (another iron-binding protein). Leukocytes accumulate in the inflammatory tissue.
- Binding by siderophores (high-affinity iron-chelators), which are produced by bacteria in high amounts in iron-poor environments, such as inflammatory processes, to help the bacteria obtain sufficient iron.
- Binding by mucopolysaccharides found in the intercellular space of inflammatory sites.
- While the Ga-transferrin complex has high stability at normal pH in the blood, Ga dissociates from transferrin in environments of lower pH, as is often the case in tumours and abscesses.
3.2. Labelled Leukocytes
3.3. Bone Marrow Tracers (Labelled Nanocolloids)
3.4. Bone Scintigraphy (Labelled Phosphonates)
- First phase: Dynamic imaging right after injection (e.g., the first minute), reflecting the blood perfusion.
- Second phase: Static imaging of the relevant part of the body immediately after the first phase, reflecting the blood pool.
- Third phase: After 2–4 h, static imaging, reflecting uptake of phosphonates in the bone matrix.
3.5. FDG, a Glucose Analogue
4. Newer Tracers Considered for Bone Infection Imaging
4.1. [68Ga]Ga-Citrate
4.2. Other Sugar Analogues Than FDG
4.3. [15O]water
4.4. [11C]methionine
4.5. [11C]donepezil
4.6. Technetium-Labelled Interleukin-8 (IL-8)
4.7. [68Ga]Ga-DOTA-Siglec-9
4.8. 68Ga-Labelled Phage-Display Selected Peptides
4.9. Labelled Antimicrobial Peptides, Ubiquicidin
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Radionuclide | Half-Life 1 | Imaging Modality 2 |
---|---|---|
11C | 20.39 min | PET |
15O | 122 s | PET |
18F | 109.77 min | PET |
67Ga | 3.26 d | SPECT |
68Ga | 67.7 min | PET |
99mTc | 6.02 h | SPECT |
111In | 2.80 d | SPECT |
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Jødal, L.; Afzelius, P.; Alstrup, A.K.O.; Jensen, S.B. Radiotracers for Bone Marrow Infection Imaging. Molecules 2021, 26, 3159. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26113159
Jødal L, Afzelius P, Alstrup AKO, Jensen SB. Radiotracers for Bone Marrow Infection Imaging. Molecules. 2021; 26(11):3159. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26113159
Chicago/Turabian StyleJødal, Lars, Pia Afzelius, Aage Kristian Olsen Alstrup, and Svend Borup Jensen. 2021. "Radiotracers for Bone Marrow Infection Imaging" Molecules 26, no. 11: 3159. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26113159