In Situ Coupling of Ultrasound to Electro- and Photo-Deposition Methods for Materials Synthesis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mechanism of Sonoelectrodeposition and Sonophotodeposition Processes
3. Materials Obtained by the Sonoelectrodeposition and Sonophotodeposition Processes
4. Final Remarks
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Entry | Type of Material | Synthesis Setup | Characteristics of the Material | Application/Test Reaction | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sonoelectrodeposition | |||||
1. | PbO2/glassy carbon electrode PbO2/Pt electrode | Ultrasonic bath (30 kHz, 100 W), glassy carbon rod and polyoriented platinum as the working electrodes | The activation of glassy carbon electrode in contrast to platinum electrode. This activation was explained by the formation of surface functional groups, because no change in topography of the electrode surface was seen | Potential application of PbO2 as an anode in: electrochemical degradation, synthesis, batteries, sensors, but not tested by authors | [16] |
2. | PbO2/glassy carbon electrode | Sonoreactor (20 kHz, 100 W), glassy carbon rod as the working electrode, platinum wire as the counter electrode, calomel electrode as the reference | The influence of ultrasound frequency on the kinetics of electrodeposition process of lead dioxide was registered. The explanation of this phenomenon was found in the increase of OH• generation | Potential application of PbO2 as an anode in: electrochemical degradation, synthesis, batteries, sensors, but not tested by authors | [17,18] |
3. | PbO2/glassy carbon electrode PbO2/Tielectrode | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz), or ultrasonic bath (40 kHz, 100 W), plates of graphite or titanium as the working electrodes, copper as the counter electrode | Homogeneous, free from stress and nodules. PbO2 film was obtained on both electrodes. A strong improvement in the quality of these deposits, a lower corrosion rate in the accelerated test reactions | Sonoelectrochemical degradation of perchloroethylene (PCE) in sulfate media; electrochemical recovery of zinc | [25] |
4. | Pt/glassy carbon electrode (GC) Pt/gas diffusion layer (GDL) | Ultrasonic probe (20 kHz), glass carbon (or carbon gas diffusion layer) as the working electrode | The electrodeposition of Pt was facilitated by a decrease in nucleation overpotentials. Formation of larger nanoparticles and their agglomerates were observed | Potentially as electrodes for PEMFCs and DMFCs, but not tested by the authors | [26] |
5. | Platinum nanoflowers | Ultrasonic bath (45 W), Pt working electrode, glassy carbon counter electrode, Ag reference electrode, constant potential 50 mV | Platinum layer built of irregular and fragmentized nanoparticles, gathered in self-affined larger structures, finally forming hierarchical nanoflowers | Non-enzymatic sensor of hydrogen peroxide | [28] |
6. | Nanoplatinum fractal structures | Ultrasonic bath, Pt/Ir electrodes as the working electrode, Pt wire as the counter electrode, constant overpotential 10 V | The nanoplatinum displayed: fractal features, homogeneous size distribution and very high electroactive surface. Formation of stable nanostructures were promoted by a high duty cycle (900 mHz) and reduction of amorphous structure due to cavitation effect | Non-enzymatic and enzymatic sensors for measuring hydrogen peroxide and glucose | [29] |
7. | CaP/carbon fibers | Ultrasonic bath (40 kHz, 2.16 W/cm2), carbon fabric as the working electrode, constant current density (20 mA/cm2) | Better morphology: a uniform coating with small crystals and good adhesive strength, was obtained under this condition in comparison with a silent mode | Biomedical application: bioceramic composites used for the reconstruction of bone defects | [30] |
8. | CaP/carbon fibers | Ultrasonic bath (40 kHz, 2.16 W/cm2), carbon fabric as the working electrode, platinum plate as the counter electrode, different current densities: 5, 8, 13, 20, and 34 mA/cm2 | Different morphology of the CaP coatings depends on the current density. More uniform structures with smaller crystal sizes were obtained at higher values of current density | Biomedical application | [31] |
9. | Hydroxyapatite (HA)/porous carbon composite scaffolds | Ultrasonic stirring, porous carbon, constant voltage 3 V | A homogeneous coating with HA crystals across external as well as internal surfaces of the porous carbon scaffold was obtained | Biomedical application: in vitro 3D culture of osteoblasts | [32] |
10. | CaP-coated C/C composites | Ultrasonic device (25 kHz, 100 W), C/C electrode as the cathode, graphite as the anode, different voltages: 2.0, 2.4, 2.7, and 3.0 V, controlled temp. 50 ± 3 °C | The most homogeneous coating was obtained at 2.4 V and formed an interlocking structure along the depth direction of the coating without any defects or uncovered areas. This resulted in improved adhesive and cohesive strength of the coating | Biomedical application, especially as dental and medical implant materials | [33] |
11. | CdS/TiO2NT | Ultrasonic bath (40 kHz, 2.4 kW/m2), TiO2 NT as the working electrode, Pt foil as the counter electrode, constant current density (5 mA/cm2), constant temperature 50 °C | TiO2 nanotubes were successfully filled with CdS small-sized nanoparticles with more homogeneous distribution. A stronger photocurrent and extended photoresponse to the visible light were observed for such composites | Potential application in photocatalytic reactions, but not performed by the authors | [34] |
12. | Cu/Graphite | Ultrasonic probe (20 kHz, 20% output), graphite electrode as the cathode, Pt electrode as the anode, Ag electrode as the reference electrode, different set of temperatures: 25, 20, 15, 10, and 5 °C | A maximum value of compressive residual stress in the Cu films was registered at 5 °C. This result has a direct influence on the mechanical properties of the film, as the maximum hardness and elasticity occurred also at the lowest deposition temperature | Potential application in electronic industry, but not tested by the authors | [35] |
13. | Cu/Graphite | Ultrasonic bath (30 kHz, 60 W); graphite electrode as the cathode, copper electrode as the anode, calomel electrode as the reference; temperatures selected for this experiment were as following: 25, 19.5, −1 and −3 °C | Cleaner nanorange deposits of copper were obtained under sonication. Different morphology of Cu films was registered at different deposition temperatures: from inhomogeneously deposited distorted grains at 25 °C to uniform coatings with fine grains at −3 °C | Potential application in electronic industry, but not tested by the authors | [36] |
14. | Poly(pyrrole)/Prussian blue (PB) nanocomposite | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz, 130 W) with different amplitudes: 20%, 40%, and 60%; ITO electrodes | With the increasing ultrasound amplitude the morphology of the film changed from large aggregates to small particles homogeneously distributed over the electrode surface | Electrocatalytic reduction of H2O2. Potential application in electrocatalysis (sensors/biosensors) | [37] |
15. | Poly(pyrrole)/dodecylbenzenesulphonate (DBS) film | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz, 130 W) with different amplitudes: 20%, 40%, and 60%; platinum electrode | Different morphology of the films obtained under silent and sonochemical conditions reflected in a distinct voltammetric behavior of electrodes. Diminished the charge-transfer resistance of the films | Potential application as electrochemical based devices: sensors, biosensors and supercapacitors | [38] |
16. | Co-Pt NPs | Pulse mode operating ultrasonic horn acted as the cathode and ultrasound emitter, platinum plate as the counter electrode | An ordering of Co-Pt phase, hard magnetic properties and formation of metallic core-carbon onion shell structure after sonoelectrodeposition with annealing in CO atmosphere | Potential magnetic application (e.g., ultrahigh-density magnetic storage media), but not tested by the authors | [39] |
17. | FePt NPs | Pulse mode operating ultrasonic horn acted as the cathode and ultrasound emitter, platinum plate as the counter electrode | Improvement of magnetic properties and ordering of crystal structure of FePt were obtained when sonoelectrodeposition was followed by annealing at high temp | Potential magnetic application (e.g., ultrahigh-density magnetic storage media), but not tested by the authors | [41] |
18. | FePd NPs | Pulse mode operating ultrasonic horn acted as the cathode and ultrasound emitter, platinum plate as the counter electrode | Sonoelectrodeposition with the following annealing at high temp. resulted in formation of the ordered L10 crystal structure and hard magnetic properties of FePd NPs | Potential magnetic application (e.g., ultrahigh-density magnetic storage media), but not tested by the authors | [40] |
19. | Ni-Co/Al2O3 | Ultrasonic power (0–160 W), nickel plate as anode, polished mild steel sheet as cathode, under pulse reverse current | Uniform, compact coating with a fine grains and enhanced mechanical properties | Potential application in automobile/aerospace industry, but not tested by the authors | [42] |
20. | Zn-Ni-Al2O3 | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz, 150 W) with ultrasonic power applied 0.7 W/cm2, Zn plate as the anode, Cu as the cathode | Uniform dispersion of nano-alumina in the Zn-Ni matrix. Different composition of the composite layers: the outermost layer consists of Al2O3 and Zn(OH)2 while transitional layer contains Al2O3, ZnO, Zn, and Ni | Potential application as anti-corrosion coatings | [43] |
21. | Zn-Ni-Al2O3 | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz, 150 W) different ultrasonic power applied (from 0 W/cm2 to 1.2 W/cm2), Zn plate as the anode | Increased content and more uniform dispersion of nano-alumina particles resulted in improved anticorrosion property and hardness of the composite coating (0.7 W/cm2) | Potential application as anti-corrosion coatings | [44] |
22. | Ag NPs | Ultrasonic bath (20 kHz, 100 W), stainless steel as a the cathode, Ru-Ti alloy as a the counter electrode, controlled-current 60 mA | Shaped silver NPs were obtained: spheres with a diameter about 30 nm, wires with a diameter 30 nm and length 200–900 nm and dendrites, formed with increasing concentration of silver solution | Potential application in microelectronics, optical, electronics, magnetic devices, but not tested by the authors | [45] |
23. | Ag NPs loaded on active carbon | Sonicator working in a pulse mode, silver plate used as the cathode, platinum plate as the anode | Ag NPs with the size of 4–30 nm dispersed in a non-toxic solution due to the use of silver plate as a source of silver ions. In the next step Ag NPs were loaded on the surface of active carbon | Antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli | [46] |
24. | Au nanorods deposited on gold surface (Au-Au NR) | Ultrasonic bath (45 W) and working Au electrode | Special size, shape and structure of nanorods were obtained: a width of 80–120 nm, a length of 140–370 nm, and an aspect ratio of 1.6–3.5 | Nitrofurazone sensor | [47] |
25. | Cu-Ag NPs | Ultrasonic horn with titanium probe used as the working electrode working in a pulse mode; copper rod as the counter electrode, saturated mercury sulfate as the reference electrode | Cu core-Ag shell structure (7 nm diameter of NPs) obtained by combination of sonoelectrodeposition for the inner core and galvanic replacement reaction for outer shell | Bactericidal properties against Staphylococus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteria | [48] |
26. | Fe-Cr alloy NPs | Ultrasonic horn with titanium probe used as the working electrode working in a pulse mode (20 kHz); platinum net used as the counter electrode | Process efficiency decreases with increasing temperature of the electrolyte. Structural and morphological features of the NPs are not influenced by the synthesis temperature. The crystalline structure of NPs depends on the electrolyte’s composition | Potential technological application (good mechanical, anti-corrosive and water-resistant properties), but not tested by the authors | [49] |
27. | Iridium NPs on a copper plate | Ultrasonic homogenizer (20 kHz), copper plate as the cathode, platinum plate as the anode | Reduced defects, including cracks in the iridium deposits. Accelerated rate of iridium deposition | Potential industrial and chemical application (as an inert material), but not tested by the authors | [50] |
28. | NiZnS alloy | Ultrasound irradiation of 20 kHz at different current densities, pulse electrodeposition at various duty cycles at 10 Hz; nickel mesh electrode | The smallest size of deposit particles (17 nm), uniform coatings in fine-grained structures of the alloy, better surface morphology, the highest surface area, the highest exchange current density (8.25 × 10−3 A/cm2) and high current density (0.42 A/cm2) were achieved in pulse sonoelectrodeposited electrodes | Oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in alkaline media | [51] |
Sonophotodeposition | |||||
29. | Pd/TiO2P90 | Ultrasonic bath and 6 W Hg lamp (λmax = 254 nm) | Total reduction of palladium, despite the air calcination step. In contrast, surface PdO forms were detected in the material prepared by pure photodeposition. This confirmed the role of sonication in the reduction process | Gas phase photocatalytic degradation of methanol | [52] |
30. | Pd-Au/TiO2P90 | Ultrasonic bath and 6 W Hg lamp (λmax = 254 nm) | Formation of random alloys between Pd-Au NPs and SMSI effect between NPs and TiO2 for one specified composition of metals: 1 wt% Pd50-Au50/TiO2 P90 | Gas phase selective photocatalytic oxidation of methanol to methyl formate. | [53] |
31. | Pd-Cu/TiO2P90 | Ultrasonic bath and 6 W Hg lamp (λmax = 254 nm) | SMSI effect between Pd-Cu NPs and TiO2 for one specified composition of metals: 1 wt% Pd-Cu(1-1)/TiO2 P90. Retarding effect of Cu on total reduction of Pd | Gas phase selective photocatalytic oxidation of methanol to methyl formate | [54] |
32. | Pd-Fe/TiO2/Zeolite YPt-Fe/TiO2/Zeolite Y | Ultrasonic bath and 6 W Hg lamp (λmax = 254 nm) | Mainly Pt° and Fe3+ in Pt-Fe/TiO2/Ze and Pd2+ and Fe3+ in Pd-Fe/TiO2/Ze were formed (reduction potentials dependency). A very good dispersion and control over the particle size in the case of Pt nanoparticles | Liquid-phase photocatalytic oxidation of phenol under UV lamp | [55] |
33. | Fe/TiO2/Zeolite Y | Ultrasonic horn (20 kHz, 700 W, 25% of amplitude) and sun-imitating Xenon lamp (240–2000 nm) | 4–5 nm sized Fe3+ NPs mainly located in the bulk of the material due to the physical effect of ultrasound | Liquid-phase selective photocatalytic oxidation of benzyl alcohol into benzaldehyde in acetonitrile under UV-Vis irradiation | [56] |
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Magdziarz, A.; Colmenares, J.C. In Situ Coupling of Ultrasound to Electro- and Photo-Deposition Methods for Materials Synthesis. Molecules 2017, 22, 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020216
Magdziarz A, Colmenares JC. In Situ Coupling of Ultrasound to Electro- and Photo-Deposition Methods for Materials Synthesis. Molecules. 2017; 22(2):216. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020216
Chicago/Turabian StyleMagdziarz, Agnieszka, and Juan C. Colmenares. 2017. "In Situ Coupling of Ultrasound to Electro- and Photo-Deposition Methods for Materials Synthesis" Molecules 22, no. 2: 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020216
APA StyleMagdziarz, A., & Colmenares, J. C. (2017). In Situ Coupling of Ultrasound to Electro- and Photo-Deposition Methods for Materials Synthesis. Molecules, 22(2), 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020216