Search Results (34)

This study examined whether Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III (Bayley-III) standardized cognitive scores from toddlers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) predict intellectual quotient (IQ) at early school age and whether ASD persistence or interventions received moderate this relationship. Children diagnosed clinically with ASD at 12–36 months underwent research assessments at 5–7 years. Of 212 children diagnosed as toddlers, 133 continued to meet DSM-5 ASD criteria based on current functioning at school age (“persistent ASD”), and 79 did not (“non-persistent ASD”). A moderate positive correlation was found between baseline cognitive scores in toddlerhood and school age IQ (r (210) = 0.45, p < 0.001). Children with baseline cognitive scores < 70 showed greater variation in school age IQ compared to those with baseline scores > 85. Non-persistent ASD status was associated with a higher rate of cognitive change from toddler to school age (S_diff = 15.044; z = 4.432, p < 0.001). Overall, 94.3% of the sample received ASD-specific interventions. There was no relation between hours of ASD-specific interventions and change in cognitive trajectories for children with non-persistent ASD and an inverse relationship for children with persistent ASD. Full article

Background/objectives: Early literacy is widely promoted, yet its broader developmental benefits remain underexamined regarding key indicators of brain development. This study examines whether early literacy exposure in toddlerhood predicts motor skill development at the end of kindergarten. Methods: Participants comprised 1006 boys and 991 girls from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) birth cohort. Early literacy stimulation was measured at age 2 years using parent reports of frequency of shared reading, looking at books or comics, and pre-writing activities such as scribbling and tracing. At age 6 years, child motor development was assessed by trained examiners. Sex-stratified multiple regression models were examined, adjusting for pre-existing and concurrent child and family characteristics. Results: Early literacy stimulation was significantly associated with better motor control skills among girls (β = 0.10, p < 0.05). For boys, a non-significant positive trend was observed for both motor and locomotion skills. Conclusions: Our findings underscore the lasting influence of early literacy stimulation and subsequent motor skills—particularly for girls who may receive less gross motor encouragement than boys. As such, promoting literacy-rich environments in toddlerhood is a family strategy to support healthy, confident, and active youth development. Full article

Background/Objectives: Cord blood mitochondrial DNA copy number (mtDNAcn) has been proposed as a biomarker reflecting environmental influences during fetal life, with reported associations with perinatal outcomes such as birth weight and length. Within the framework of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) theory, this study aimed to investigate whether cord blood mtDNAcn is related to postnatal physical growth in early childhood. Methods: We analyzed data from 150 newborns (68 females and 82 males) enrolled in the Tohoku Medical Megabank Birth and Three-Generation Cohort Study in Japan. Cord blood mtDNAcn was quantified using real-time PCR, and standard deviation scores for weight and height were assessed at 1, 2–3, 4–6, 18–24, and 36–48 months of age. Correlation analyses were conducted separately by sex. Results: Cord blood mtDNAcn showed no significant associations with body weight or height at any of the postnatal time points up to 48 months of age. Growth trajectories of infants with higher or lower mtDNAcn values at birth tended to converge toward the population mean during infancy and toddlerhood. Conclusions: Although no significant relationships were observed, this exploratory, hypothesis-generating study provides a foundation for future investigations. Larger cohorts with extended follow-up are needed to clarify the potential significance of cord blood mtDNAcn in early-life research on child growth and health. Full article

The maturation of brain regions involved in emotion regulation—particularly the amygdala and prefrontal cortex—from fetal life to age two is a dynamic process shaped by genetic and environmental factors. Early experiences, especially responsive caregiving, promote the growth of neural circuits supporting emotional expression and regulation. In contrast, early adversity such as neglect or chronic stress may disrupt these circuits and increase vulnerability to emotional difficulties. Elevated levels of placental CRH are linked to alterations in fetal brain development related to emotion. Neurodevelopmental processes like synaptic pruning and myelination, active during the first years, further shape emotional circuitry. These findings underscore the importance of early caregiving and timely interventions in fostering healthy emotional development. The present article proposes an integrative conceptual framework for early emotional and cognitive development, combining neurobiological models with contemporary theories in developmental psychology. Full article

Cross-sectional research suggests associations between enrichment and cognitive skills in toddlerhood. There are no prospectively designed longitudinal studies that investigate the link between early home literacy activities and subsequent mechanisms that explain the putative cognitive benefits. This study tests long-term associations between toddler literacy enrichment and later student engagement across key academic transitions, from kindergarten to the end of high school. Using the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (QLSCD) population-based birth cohort data, we examined whether parent-reported experiences of shared reading, looking at picture books or illustrated stories, and pretend writing at age 2 years predict later teacher- and self-reported student engagement at ages 6, 12, and 17 years. The results from multiple regression models, stratified by sex and adjusted for pre-existing and concurrent child and family characteristics, revealed significant associations between early literacy enrichment and later engagement. For boys and girls, literacy enrichment in toddlerhood predicted increases in classroom engagement from kindergarten to the end of high school. These findings highlight the lasting influence of early literacy exposure on subsequent learning-related behaviors, both in and beyond the classroom. They underscore the importance of promoting enrichment in early childhood as a family strategy toward individual readiness to learn, a cornerstone of crystalized intelligence. Full article

Background/objectives: Early childhood is marked by rapid physical and cognitive development, underscoring the critical influence of parental choices in shaping habits, pastimes, and traditions. The World Health Organization highlights habits of physical activity, sleep, and screen use as modulators of healthy development and well-being in young children. As a first, this birth cohort study investigates the relationship between movement behaviors in toddlerhood and subsequent sport participation during middle childhood. Methods: Participants are 930 boys and 926 girls from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development. Using a population-based analytical approach, we examined the relationship between parent-reported active leisure, sleep, and sedentary screen time at age 2 years and trajectory of sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years using sex-stratified linear regressions that account for a range of pre-existing individual and family confounding factors. Results: Many child and family characteristics predicted early childhood movement behaviors, distinctly for boys and girls. Moreover, parental regulation of screen time during early childhood significantly influenced their decisions to enroll and encourage sport participation in sons during school age. Specifically, boys who spent more than 1 h/day on screens had 10% fewer chances of consistently participating in sport throughout middle childhood, even after accounting for adherence to other lifestyle habits. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that parental values regarding early childhood screen exposure are an effective potential target for intervention fostering healthy and active development. Future research should focus on parent and child motivations for sport involvement in the long-term. Full article

Background/Objectives: Appetitive traits may contribute to early feeding challenges by shaping children’s emerging dietary patterns. While food approach traits have been linked to excess weight, their role in influencing food type and quality during toddlerhood remains underexplored. This study aimed to examine associations between appetitive traits and dietary patterns in children aged 12 to 36 months. Methods: This cross-sectional study collected data from a university hospital and the metropolitan area of Guadalajara, Mexico. A survey was conducted through direct interviews with primary caregivers, which included the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire for Toddlers (CEBQ-T) and a qualitative food group frequency questionnaire. Dietary patterns were determined using principal component analysis. Statistical analyses were performed to identify associations between six appetitive traits and dietary patterns. Results: Three dietary patterns were identified: “Processed”, “Healthy” and “Dietary Transition/Modern Mexican”. Higher scores for Food Responsiveness and Emotional Overeating traits were associated with greater adherence to the Processed dietary pattern. Increased scores in Enjoyment of Food were associated with higher adherence to a Healthy dietary pattern. Children with higher scores in Food Fussiness exhibited lower adherence to the Healthy dietary pattern and were more likely to follow a Dietary Transition/Modern Mexican pattern. Between 12 and 36 months of age, appetitive traits may influence the development of more or less healthy dietary patterns. Conclusions: These findings underscore the importance of early identification of appetite-related behavioral tendencies as part of a broader understanding of feeding challenges in early childhood. Full article

We investigated the relationship between process quality in early childhood education and care (ECEC) and children’s socio-emotional development in a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Our multi-level meta-analysis of 31 publications reporting on 16 longitudinal studies (N = 17,913 children, age: 2.5–18 yrs) demonstrates that the process quality of ECEC is a small but significant predictor of children’s socio-emotional development over time (ES = 0.103, SE = 0.026, p < 0.001, 95% CI: 0.052–0.155). This longitudinal association extends to the age of 18 years in our sample. Process quality of ECEC is, thus, a significant and stable predictor of children’s socio-emotional development and well-being from toddlerhood to adolescence. The longitudinal relationship was moderated by the type of care (center-based vs. home-based) and the informant (parent, professional caregiver, external assessor, or self-report of the child). Implications for future ECEC research are discussed. Full article

Background/Objective: Inadequate nutrient intake in childhood can have lasting detrimental developmental and health outcomes. The objective of this study was to identify key nutrient intake gaps among US children. Method: Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015–2016 data, we compared nutrient intakes against dietary reference intakes (DRIs). Participants were grouped by age (in years): 0–0.5, 0.6–1, 1–4, 5–8, 9–14, and 15–19. Gender differences were assessed in the two older groups. Results: Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, vitamin D, and choline were the most consumed at lesser than DRIs in all age groups. Additionally, dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K, folate, iron, and calcium were consumed at lesser than DRIs in 1–19 year olds. They also had an inadequate intake of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Children with nutrient intake gaps increased from infancy and toddlerhood to school-age period, with the inflection point at 5–8 years of age when parents have limited control on children’s nutrient intake. Above 9 years of age, females had greater nutrient intake gaps than males. Females in the 15–19-year-old segment especially had higher nutrient intake gaps (p < 0.05) for vitamin D, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B12, folate, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium compared to males. Selected laboratory biomarkers were used to verify the nutrient intake data. Conclusions: Key nutrient intake gaps were identified among different age groups of children in the US, which may have implications for future dietary interventions and target food formulations to help narrow these gaps. Full article

Background/Objectives: While studies suggest that young children can learn and think about sustainability, most research has focused on children aged three to five, leaving a significant gap in understanding how to engage toddlers (one to three years of age) in early-childhood education in sustainability (ECEfS). This study aims to address this gap, a crucial and often overlooked area, by investigating preschool teachers’ views of ECEfS and their daily practices for nurturing sustainability in a toddler group in a Swedish preschool. Methods: We employed a case study approach, incorporating observations, interviews, and document analysis for data collection. Qualitative techniques were used for data analysis. The research was conducted with a strong commitment to ethical considerations, including obtaining participants’ consent, ensuring confidentiality and privacy, informing them of their right to withdraw, and maintaining anonymity. Results: The findings demonstrate that the teachers possessed a solid understanding of education for sustainability and were capable of effectively implementing sustainability-related daily practices in toddler groups. By creating suitable learning environments and integrating sustainability issues into daily classroom activities, they enhanced the children’s overall learning experiences. Conclusions: This study’s findings underscore the pivotal role of educators in shaping the mindsets and behaviors of future generations, thereby supporting the long-term goals of sustainable development. By nurturing toddlers’ innate curiosity and harnessing their brains’ plasticity, educators can effectively engage toddlers in ECEfS and promote sustainable development from an early age. This study’s implications highlight the need to prioritize ECEfS during toddlerhood to realize the full potential of this critical investment in the future of our planet. Full article

Toddlerhood (aged 13~36 months) is a period of dietary transition, with water intake being significantly influenced by parental feeding patterns, cultural traditions, and the availability of beverages and food. Nevertheless, given the lack of applicable data, it is challenging to guide and evaluate the water intake of toddlers in China. In this study, our objectives were to assess the daily total water intake (TWI), evaluate the consumption patterns of various beverages and food sources contributing to the TWI, determine the conformity of participants to the adequate intake (AI) recommendation of water released by the Chinese Nutrition Society, and analyze the various contributors to the daily total energy intake (TEI). The data for the assessment of water and dietary intake were obtained from the cross-sectional dietary intake survey of infants and young children (DSIYC, 2018–2019). A total of 1360 eligible toddlers were recruited in the analysis. The differences in related variables between two age groups were compared by Mann–Whitney U test and Chi-Square test. The potential correlation between water and energy intake was examined utilizing age-adjusted partial correlation. Toddlers consumed a median daily TWI of 1079 mL, with 670 mL (62.3%, r = 0.752) derived from beverages and 393 mL (37.7%, r = 0.716) from foods. Plain water was the primary beverage source, contributing 300 mL (52.2%, r = 0.823), followed by milk and milk derivatives (MMDs) at 291 mL (45.6%, r = 0.595). Notably, only 28.4% of toddlers managed to reach the recommended AI value. Among these, toddlers obtain more water from beverages than from foods. The median daily TEI of toddlers was 762 kcal, including 272 kcal from beverages (36.4%, r = 0.534) and 492 kcal from foods (63.6%, r = 0.894). Among these, the median daily energy intake from MMDs was 260 kcal, making up 94.6% of the energy intake from beverages (r = 0.959). As the pioneer survey on TWI of toddlers in China based on nationally representative data, attention to the quality and quantity of water intake and actions to better guide parents by both individuals and authorities are eagerly anticipated. Additionally, the revision of the reference value of TWI for Chinese toddlers is urgently required. Full article

This study examines how feeding, sleep, and growth during infancy impact the gut microbiome (GM) in toddlers. The research was conducted on toddlers (n = 36), born to Latina women of low-income with obesity. Their mothers completed retrospective feeding and sleeping questionnaires at 1, 6, and 12 months; at 36 months, fecal samples were collected. Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene (V4 region) revealed that breastfeeding for at least 1 month and the introduction of solids before 6 months differentiated the GM in toddlerhood (Bray–Curtis, pseudo-F = 1.805, p = 0.018, and pseudo-F = 1.651, p = 0.044, respectively). Sleep had an effect across time; at 1 and 6 months of age, a lower proportion of nighttime sleep (relative to 24 h total sleep) was associated with a richer GM at three years of age (Shannon H = 4.395, p = 0.036 and OTU H = 5.559, p = 0.018, respectively). Toddlers experiencing rapid weight gain from birth to 6 months had lower phylogenetic diversity (Faith PD H = 3.633, p = 0.057). These findings suggest that early life nutrition, sleeping patterns, and growth rate in infancy may influence the GM composition. Further verification of these results with objective sleep data and a larger sample is needed. Full article

Children born preterm often face challenges with self-regulation during toddlerhood. This study examined the relationship between prematurity, supportive parent behaviors, frontal lobe gray matter volume (GMV), and emotion regulation (ER) among toddlers during a parent-assisted, increasingly complex problem-solving task, validated for this age range. Data were collected from preterm toddlers (n = 57) ages 15–30 months corrected for prematurity and their primary caregivers. MRI data were collected during toddlers’ natural sleep. The sample contained three gestational groups: 22–27 weeks (extremely preterm; EPT), 28–33 weeks (very preterm; VPT), and 34–36 weeks (late preterm; LPT). Older toddlers became more compliant as the Tool Task increased in difficulty, but this pattern varied by gestational group. Engagement was highest for LPT toddlers, for older toddlers, and for the easiest task condition. Parents did not differentiate their support depending on task difficulty or their child’s age or gestational group. Older children had greater frontal lobe GMV, and for EPT toddlers only, more parent support was related to larger right frontal lobe GMV. We found that parent support had the greatest impact on high birth risk (≤27 gestational weeks) toddler brain development, thus early parent interventions may normalize preterm child neurodevelopment and have lasting impacts. Full article

The literature on children born prematurely has consistently shown that full-term babies outperform preterm babies by about 12 IQ points, even when tested as adolescents, and this advantage for full-term infants extends to the language and motor domains as well. The results of comprehensive meta-analyses suggest that the degree of prematurity greatly influences later test performance, but these inferences are based on data from an array of separate studies with no control of potential confounding variables such as age. This study analyzed Bayley-4 data for 66 extremely premature infants and toddlers (<32 weeks), 70 moderately premature children (32–36 weeks), and 133 full-term children. All groups were carefully matched on key background variables by the test publisher during the standardization of the Bayley-4. This investigation analyzed data on the five subtests: cognitive, expressive communication, receptive communication, fine motor, and gross motor. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) assessed for group mean differences across the three subsamples, while controlling for the children’s age. Extremely premature children scored significantly lower than moderately premature children on all subtests, and both preterm groups were significantly outscored by the full-term sample across all domains. In each set of comparisons, the cognitive and motor subtests yielded the largest differences, whereas language development, both expressive and receptive, appeared the least impacted by prematurity. A follow-up MANOVA was conducted to examine full-term versus preterm discrepancies on the five subtests for infants (2–17 months) vs. toddlers (18–42 months). For that analysis, the two preterm groups were combined into a single preterm sample, and a significant interaction between the age level and group (full-term vs. preterm) was found. Premature infants scored lower than premature toddlers on receptive communication, fine motor, and cognitive. Neither expressive communication nor gross motor produced significant discrepancies between age groups The findings of this study enrich the preterm literature on the degree of prematurity; the age-based interactions have implications for which abilities are most likely to improve as infants grow into toddlerhood. Full article

The study investigated the emergence of toddlers’ regulatory strategies in aversive contexts. Forty-two toddlers were observed at 24 and 30 months of age using two paradigms designed to elicit fear and anger. We examined toddlers’ use of regulatory strategies at these two stages of life regarding the frequency of self-versus other-oriented strategies and of reactive versus more controlled behaviors. Results showed that the type and level of control of strategies used in toddlerhood in managing negative emotions depend on emotion (e.g., fear versus anger) and age. Toddlers used self-oriented strategies to regulate fear and other-oriented strategies to regulate anger. To manage fear, when toddlers got older, they increased the use of reactive strategies (i.e., releasing tension) and decreased the use of more purposeful strategies (i.e., dealing with the aversive stimulus). In contrast, to regulate anger, toddlers utilized an intermediate level of control (i.e., drawing the mother’s attention to themselves) and increased the use of this strategy with age. In addition, toddlers were able to select appropriate strategies for different stressors, and they increased with age the ability to adapt the strategies to the environmental conditions. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Full article