Search Results (510)

Background: Aerobic capacity and respiratory efficiency are critical determinants of performance in elite female football, characterized by repeated high-intensity efforts and rapid recovery demands. Halotherapy, involving the inhalation of dry salt aerosol, has been shown to improve pulmonary health; however, its effects on exercise-related outcomes in athletic populations remain insufficiently investigated. This study aimed to examine the effects of a 12-week post-training halotherapy intervention on respiratory muscle strength, pulmonary function, and aerobic performance in elite female football players. Methods: Twenty-eight elite female football players competing in the Turkish Women’s First League were randomly assigned to a halotherapy group (HG, n = 14) or a control group (CG, n = 14). Both groups completed an identical preseason training program, while the HG additionally performed 45 min halotherapy sessions three times per week in a controlled halochamber. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included maximal inspiratory and expiratory pressures (MIP, MEP), spirometric parameters (FVC, FEV₁, PEF, MVV), and maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) estimated using the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRT1), along with total distance covered. A 2 × 2 mixed-model ANOVA was used to assess time and group × time interaction effects. Results: Significant group × time interactions were observed for MIP, MEP, VO₂max, FEV₁, PEF, MVV, and Yo-Yo IRT1 performance (p < 0.05), with large effect sizes (ηp² = 0.269–0.924), favoring the halotherapy group. Forced vital capacity (FVC) increased over time in both groups (p = 0.141), with no significant interaction effect. Changes in the control group were comparatively smaller across most outcomes. Conclusion: Post-training halotherapy was associated with improvements in respiratory muscle strength, ventilatory function, aerobic capacity, and intermittent running performance in elite female football players. These findings suggest that halotherapy may be considered as a complementary, non-invasive strategy to support respiratory and aerobic adaptations. Further research is required to confirm these findings and to clarify the underlying physiological mechanisms. Trial registration: NCT07406386; 6 February 2026. Full article

This study investigated seasonal changes in anthropometric characteristics, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic capacity, and repeated-sprint ability in competitive youth soccer players across the preparation, mid-season, and end-season phases. A longitudinal repeated-measures design was employed over one competitive season. Anthropometric variables, vertical and horizontal jump performance, 30 m sprint performance, estimated VO₂max derived from the Vam-Eval field test, and repeated-sprint sets (2 × 5 × 20 m with 15 s recovery between sprints and 1 min between sets) were assessed at three time points. Significant seasonal changes were observed in anthropometric characteristics, with body mass and height increasing progressively and body fat percentage decreasing throughout the competitive season (F ≥ 12.0, p < 0.001, η_p² ≥ 0.32). Body mass increased from 64.1 ± 6.7 to 66.7 ± 6.8 kg, height from 1.69 ± 0.07 to 1.72 ± 0.07 m, and body fat percentage decreased from 11.3 ± 2.0% to 9.4 ± 1.8%. Peak height velocity (PHV) significantly influenced changes in body mass and height but not body fat percentage. Seasonal improvements were observed in several physical performance measures. Squat jump, standing long jump, 15 s repeated jump performance, 10- and 30 m sprint performance, estimated maximal aerobic speed, estimated VO₂max, and repeated-sprint performance changed significantly across the season (F ≥ 3.28, p ≤ 0.046, η_p² ≥ 0.11), whereas countermovement jump, five-jump test, and flying 20 m sprint performance remained unchanged. Estimated VO₂max and maximal aerobic speed improved from preparation to mid-season and were subsequently maintained. Repeated-sprint performance exhibited set-dependent seasonal adaptations, with significant Time × Set interactions indicating progressive improvements during the second repeated-sprint set, whereas the first set showed only transient improvements at mid-season. Significant PHV and Time × PHV effects were also observed for aerobic capacity and repeated-sprint performance. In conclusion, these seasonal variations likely reflect the combined influence of biological maturation, training exposure, and competitive demands rather than training effects alone. Full article

Background: Competitive esports represents a rapidly developing digital performance environment in which players must regulate attention, affect, psychophysiological activation, and performance under dynamic, high-demand conditions. Although cognitive overload and related states are increasingly relevant to esports research, these constructs have not been consistently defined, operationalized, or measured. Objective: This scoping review aimed to map empirical evidence on cognitive overload and related states in competitive esports, with emphasis on cognitive demands, psychophysiological and neurophysiological markers, coping and recovery approaches, game genres, and performance outcomes. Methods: The review followed Joanna Briggs Institute guidance and PRISMA-ScR reporting principles. Searches were conducted in Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost on 5 May 2026. Eligible studies were peer-reviewed empirical articles involving ranked, collegiate, semi-professional, professional, elite, or otherwise competitive esports players and included at least one objective or semi-objective indicator relevant to overload-related states. Results: Forty-eight studies were included. Evidence was distributed across in-game performance, stress and arousal, cardiometabolic load, mental workload, sleep and recovery, perceptual-cognitive processing, neurophysiological markers, and intervention-oriented approaches. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), eye-tracking, sleep or wearable measures, electroencephalography (EEG), event-related potential (ERP), cortisol, pupil diameter, electrodermal activity (EDA), cognitive tasks, and in-game metrics were used across the literature. However, these measures were rarely integrated into unified, multimodal models. Conclusions: Cognitive overload in esports is best understood as a dynamic, multidimensional state emerging from interactions between game demands, competitive context, player regulation, and performance consequences. Future research should develop genre-sensitive, multimodal, and time-synchronized models that distinguish workload, stress, fatigue, arousal, tilt, and performance decline. Full article

Curling is strategically complex, yet data-driven strategic AI is limited by the scarcity of large-scale match data with shot-by-shot states and histories. Digital Curling provides such an environment, but no prior system has combined match resumption after failures, centralized state persistence, and a decoupled simulator into a single, reusable research platform. We propose and implement a new Digital Curling platform that improves resilience and extensibility through a stateless server, database-backed state persistence, REST APIs and Server-Sent Events (SSE), and a decoupled simulator, supporting both the standard four-player and mixed-doubles formats. In a 24 h experiment, the system recovered from all 290 timeout-induced communication failures with 100% reconnection success and a mean recovery time of about 1 s. In a server-restart experiment ($N=50$), it resumed every match with full state consistency, and it ran for about 60 h over six days at Expo 2025 Osaka, Kansai, with no system-attributable failures. A load evaluation further shows that the platform sustains concurrent load and scales near-linearly, achieving 1.97× throughput across two server workers. Under these controlled conditions, the platform offers a promising foundation for continuous match operation and future strategic AI research in curling. Full article

Purpose: The assessment of endocrine status in elite athletes is typically linked to training load and perceived stress; however, the relationship between hormonal parameters and psychosomatic and stress indicators remains insufficiently understood. This study aimed to investigate the associations between endocrine status and stress, mood, and psychosomatic status indicators in elite handball players. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, salivary cortisol (with no strict control over wake-up time), testosterone, and—in female athletes—17-β-estradiol concentrations were assessed in 584 elite handball players aged 14–35 years using ELISA. Psychological variables were evaluated using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Profile of Mood States (POMS), and the Health Behavior in School-aged Children Symptom Checklist (HBSC-SCL). Associations were examined using non-parametric tests and general linear models adjusted for age. Results: Hormonal and psychological variables demonstrated significant age-related trends. No significant associations were observed between hormonal parameters and perceived stress or mood disturbance (values for the general linear model (GLM) were all p > 0.05). In contrast, psychosomatic symptom severity was significantly associated with cortisol levels in male athletes (GLM, p < 0.001) and testosterone levels in female athletes (GLM, p = 0.009). Multivariate analyses confirmed the relevance of psychosomatic symptoms and indicated interaction effects between stress-related factors. Conclusion: Psychosomatic symptoms were more closely associated with endocrine status than with perceived stress or mood disturbance in elite handball players. However, these associations were characterized by relatively small effect sizes, indicating that psychosomatic symptoms explain only a limited proportion of the variance in hormonal parameters. These findings suggest that psychosomatic indicators may provide a more sensitive reflection of physiological strain and support the use of integrated monitoring approaches combining endocrine and psychosomatic measures in elite sport. In practical terms, routine monitoring of psychosomatic symptoms alongside hormonal measures may help practitioners to identify early signs of physiological strain and support timely adjustments in training load and recovery strategies. Full article

Background/Objectives: Diet quality is relevant to athlete health and recovery, yet practical methods for assessing dietary patterns in elite sporting environments remain limited. This exploratory study aimed to examine the relationship between skin carotenoid status and diet quality in male professional National Rugby League players. Methods: Skin carotenoids were assessed at three time points throughout the NRL season: pre-, mid-, and end-season. The Veggie Meter^® was used to assess carotenoids alongside a single 24 h dietary recall at each time point. Dietary data for each player were scored using the Healthy Eating Index for Australian Adults 2013 (HEIFA-2013) to calculate a score out of 100. Correlations were explored via Pearson correlation coefficients, and linear mixed models were used to compare data over the season. Results: Correlations between carotenoid status and diet quality score varied across time points: pre-season, r = 0.297, 95% CI −0.094 to 0.608, p = 0.196; mid-season, r = 0.451, 95% CI 0.108 to 0.698, p = 0.012; and end-season, r = 0.335, 95% CI −0.036 to 0.625, p = 0.076. Mean carotenoid scores did not differ significantly across the season: 294 in pre-season (n = 27), 314 in mid-season (n = 30), and 318 in end-season (n = 29), p = 0.16. Mean HEIFA-2013 scores also did not differ significantly across the season: 66.4 in pre-season, 64.6 in mid-season, and 62.6 in end-season, p = 0.38. Conclusions: This exploratory study provides preliminary evidence that skin carotenoid status may reflect aspects of diet quality in elite NRL players, although associations varied across time points and only reached statistical significance at mid-season. Non-invasive tools such as the Veggie Meter^® may complement traditional dietary assessment methods, although further validation is required in larger, adequately powered studies of elite athletes. Full article

Monitoring athlete readiness in youth rugby players is important for understanding short-term responses to match demands and supporting recovery management. Here, we aimed to investigate short-term readiness by integrating subjective measures, clinically relevant tests, and match load data. This single-team study considered 28 male rugby players (17.8 ± 0.2 years), monitored every four consecutive days (match day [MD], MD+1, MD+2, MD+3). Readiness was assessed using four subjective dimensions (fatigue upon waking, mood, sleep quality, and muscle soreness), which were normalized to individual best values and combined into a composite readiness index (4-dRI; 0–1). The Adductor Squeeze Test (AST), Sit-and-Reach Test (SRT), and Global Positioning System-derived metrics (MD only) were also assessed. The 4-dRI decreased by approximately 30% at 24 h post-match (p < 0.001), indicating a substantial reduction in perceived readiness. Athletes exposed to higher GPS-derived match loads reported lower readiness on MD+1. AST showed moderate associations with the 4-dRI (ρ = 0.40, p < 0.05), whereas SRT appeared less responsive to short-term changes in readiness. These findings indicate that both the 4-dRI and AST were responsive to short-term changes in readiness across the competition period. Overall, these integrated data may contribute to athlete-monitoring strategies in team sport settings. Full article

Ice hockey represents a sport with predominantly anaerobic efforts best reflected by repeated sprint ability (RSA) testing (5 × 5 s with 10 s recovery). A controversy persists about the usefulness of VO₂max laboratory testing for the assessment of ice hockey players. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between laboratory-measured VO_2max and RSA simulated on a supine ergometer and tested on ice. Elite male hockey players (n = 64) were tested in the laboratory (VO_2max and RSA). RSA testing was performed by a modified Wingate test (5 × 5 s sprints with 10 s recovery). In 28 athletes RSA was assessed during on-ice testing (five maximal skating sprints between the goal and the blue line). The decrease in performance was assessed by fatigue indices. In the laboratory setting, VO₂max correlated significantly with maximum workloads of the second, third, fourth and fifth bouts with increasing correlation strength (r = 0.26, p = 0.02; r = 0.48, p < 0.001; r = 0.57, p < 0.001; and r = 0.60, p < 0.001) and with fatigue indices—the percentage workload decrement index (r = 0.44, p < 0.001) and percentage maximum average workload decrement (%) (r = 0.38, p = 0.002). In addition, VO₂max correlated with lactate levels after 10 min of recovery (r = 0.31, p = 0.01). There was no correlation between VO₂max and on-ice testing results. Moreover, the results of RSA measured in the laboratory and on ice did not show any correlation. The lack of relationship between laboratory and on-ice testing further challenges the usefulness of bicycle ergometry laboratory testing in ice hockey. Full article

Following spinal cord injury (SCI), a complex lesion scar forms at the injury site that matures and remodels over weeks, profoundly influencing neural repair and functional recovery. This lesion consists of a fibrotic scar at its core surrounded by an astrocytic scar (or border). While the astrocytic scar has been extensively studied for decades, the fibrotic scar has only recently emerged as a critical player in post-injury pathophysiology. Fibrotic scarring plays a dual role: it contributes to tissue stabilization and limits secondary damage, yet its persistence can pose a barrier that inhibits axonal regeneration and hinders recovery. Despite growing interest, key aspects of fibrotic scar formation and function remain poorly understood. This review synthesizes the current knowledge of fibrotic scarring after SCI, including its temporal progression, cellular composition, molecular mechanisms, and interactions with other cell types at the injury site, and we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies targeting fibrosis. We further highlight critical knowledge gaps and outline future directions to define how fibrotic scarring shapes the injury microenvironment and influences neural repair. Full article

Objectives: This study investigated the interplay between pre- and post-match physiological responses and subsequent emotional changes in male water polo players competing in the Italian Serie C league (third national level, sub-elite), focusing on differences between official championship (competitive) and non-competitive (training) settings. Methods: Sixteen male Italian Serie C water polo players participated. Salivary biomarkers (cortisol, immunoglobulin A (IgA), and uric acid) were measured, alongside psychological assessments of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Measurements were taken before and after both training and competition matches. Results: A significant anticipatory rise in salivary cortisol was observed before competition matches compared to training, highlighting the psychological stress associated with competitive events. Post-match, cortisol levels remained elevated to a greater extent after competition. Salivary IgA levels decreased significantly following both training and competition, with a more pronounced reduction after official matches, and exhibited a negative correlation with cortisol. Salivary uric acid, a marker of oxidative stress, increased post-exercise and was significantly higher after competition. Players reported higher somatic and cognitive anxiety and lower self-confidence before competition compared to training, and pre-competition cortisol levels were positively correlated with both anxiety measures and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusions: These findings highlight the distinct physiological and psychological responses elicited by competitive versus non-competitive settings in water polo, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional context when monitoring athletes’ stress and recovery. The social meaning of competitive contexts may be embodied, impacting stress and immune responses. Full article

Background: This scoping review examines how schedule-related load affects athletic and team performance in professional sport, an issue that has received less systematic attention than training and competition load despite its clear implications for recovery, injury risk, and performance. Methods: Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and MEDLINE were searched for relevant publications (1993–2025) examining schedule-related load in professional sport. Five theoretical frameworks (Fitness-Fatigue, Circadian Disruption, Allostatic Load, Training-Injury Prevention, and Conservation of Resources) were used to interpret underlying mechanisms. Results: Seventy-two sources were included. At the athlete level, schedule-related load degrades physical performance, impairs sleep and recovery, increases injury risk, and disrupts circadian function. At the team level, it deteriorates game outcomes, alters offensive and defensive strength, and constrains lineup management. Six research gaps were identified involving measurement, interaction effects, advanced metrics, player heterogeneity, integration with training load, and longitudinal analysis. Conclusions: The findings position schedule design as a measurable performance variable and highlight the need for more rigorous sport analytics research to support evidence-based optimization of competition calendars and workload management. Full article

Handball requires athletes to sustain intermittent high-intensity effort while maintaining rapid cognitive processing and technical skills. Caffeine is widely used as an ergogenic aid, yet its dose-dependent effects across physical, cognitive, and technical performance outcomes remain unclear in female handball players. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study examined the acute effects of low-dose caffeine (LCAF; 3 mg/kg), moderate-dose caffeine (MCAF; 6 mg/kg), and placebo (PLA) in trained female handball players. Participants (n = 20) completed three experimental sessions separated by 72 h. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Simplified Eriksen Flanker Test, throwing performance was evaluated through maximal ball velocity, and intermittent running capacity was measured with the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1. Both LCAF and MCAF significantly improved Yo-Yo performance compared with PLA (η²p = 0.415, representing improvements of approximately ~23.5% and 29.0%), with no difference between caffeine doses. MCAF significantly reduced overall Flanker response time (η²p = 0.486, ~18.5%) and congruent and incongruent trial response time compared with PLA and LCAF. No significant effects were observed for throwing velocity, Flanker accuracy and interference scores. These findings suggest that acute caffeine intake has performance-specific effects in female handball players: intermittent running performance responded to both doses, whereas cognitive enhancement was limited to response time, with no improvements in inhibitory control or accuracy. Full article

Background: Soccer match play induces substantial mechanical, metabolic, inflammatory, and neuromuscular stress, yet post-match monitoring in applied settings often relies on isolated markers, venous sampling, or limited time points. This observational repeated-measures study aimed to describe whether capillary-derived biomarkers, neuromuscular performance, and perceptual measures showed asynchronous recovery during the first 48 h after a standardised soccer match in elite players. Methods: Twenty-two elite male outfield soccer players completed a standardised 90 min match. Capillary blood biomarkers, countermovement jump (CMJ), 20 m sprint performance, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were assessed before the match, immediately post-match, and at 24 and 48 h post-match. Time effects were analysed using repeated-measures mixed-effects models, and associations between biochemical and functional responses were examined descriptively. Results: Match play induced clear but domain-specific disturbances. IL-6 and cortisol rose rapidly immediately post-match, whereas hsCRP, CK, LDH, myoglobin, and DOMS showed delayed peaks during early recovery. CK, LDH, myoglobin, and soreness remained above baseline at 48 h. CMJ and sprint performance were impaired after the match but largely recovered by 48 h, whereas MVC showed its greatest decrement at 24 h. Exploratory associations indicated that larger muscle damage responses tended to co-occur with greater strength and jump decrements and higher soreness, but these analyses were not causal. Conclusions: Recovery after a standardised elite soccer match was multidimensional and non-synchronous across physiological, neuromuscular, and perceptual domains. A capillary-based, multi-domain assessment strategy may provide a feasible descriptive perspective for field-based observation of post-match fatigue. Full article

Background/Objectives: Iron deficiency (ID) can occur before anemia and may impair performance, recovery, and hematological function, particularly in athletes. Female basketball players may be especially vulnerable due to high training demands and sex-specific iron losses. Therefore, this study aimed to compare nutrient intake and hematological and iron status biomarkers between ID and non-ID female basketball players, and to examine diet–biomarker correlations. Methods: Twenty-four female basketball players completed the study. Athletes were stratified by ferritin, with ID defined as <30 μg/L, resulting in 12 athletes per group. Dietary intake was assessed using a 48 h food record. Energy, macronutrients, fiber, iron, calcium, folate, vitamin B₁₂, and vitamin C intakes were analyzed. Blood biomarkers included red blood cells (RBCs), hemoglobin (HGB), hematocrit (HTC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), ferritin, serum iron, transferrin, total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), and unsaturated iron-binding capacity (UIBC). Results: ID athletes had significantly lower fiber, iron, folate, and vitamin C intakes than non-ID. They also showed significantly lower HGB, HTC, MCV, MCH, and ferritin, and higher transferrin, UIBC and TIBC. Iron intake correlated positively with HGB, HTC, MCV, MCH, serum iron, and ferritin, and negatively with UIBC. Conclusions: Iron deficient female basketball players may present less favorable dietary profiles and altered hematological and iron status biomarkers. In this context, quarterly assessment of iron status biomarkers should be supported by nutrition education aimed at improving iron intake, alongside monitoring of energy and macronutrient intake in relation to training load. These approaches may help identify athletes requiring nutrition-focused support, although larger studies with longer-term dietary assessment are warranted. Full article

Rising ambient temperatures and the increasing frequency of training and competition in hot climates have made heat stress a major challenge in football. Under such conditions, players experience greater cardiovascular and thermoregulatory strain, faster glycogen use, higher perceived exertion, and progressive impairment in repeated high-intensity actions and decision-making. These responses have intensified interest in nutritional strategies that might complement heat acclimation, hydration/electrolyte planning, cooling practices, and recovery management. This narrative review critically synthesizes current evidence on nutritional interventions that may be relevant to football performed in the heat, with emphasis on hydration and electrolyte replacement, carbohydrate–protein strategies, taurine, branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), creatine, menthol, antioxidant- and nitrate-related approaches, and selected multi-ingredient products. Across the available literature, hydration/electrolyte planning and carbohydrate–protein feeding remain the practical foundation, menthol appears most consistently useful for perceptual cooling, creatine seems safe and potentially helpful for repeated-sprint support, and taurine is promising but still supported by relatively few trials. By contrast, evidence for BCAAs, antioxidants, nitrates, and caffeine as stand-alone heat strategies, as well as for many compound supplements, remains inconsistent, context-specific, or too indirect for strong football-specific endorsement. Overall, the evidence base remains heterogeneous in study quality, protocol design, exercise mode, and sport specificity. A substantial proportion of the available data is derived from cycling, endurance, or laboratory heat-exercise models rather than football-specific trials. Accordingly, any practical recommendation should be interpreted cautiously and embedded within broader heat-management strategies. Future work should prioritize ecologically valid randomized controlled trials in football or football-like intermittent protocols, with transparent reporting of dose, timing, perceptual outcomes, and match-relevant performance measures. Full article