Search Results (330)

Mycotoxins, including sterigmatocystin (STC), aflatoxicol (AFL), aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), and its metabolite aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁), represent a major food safety concern in the dairy industry due to their high toxicity and thermal stability. While AFM₁ in milk is strictly regulated, there is a substantial lack of specific guidelines and scientific data regarding its behavior and enrichment factors (EFs) in buffalo-derived products. Furthermore, knowledge gaps persist regarding the transfer and stability of co-occurring molecules like STC and AFL. This study evaluated the distribution and fate of AFM₁, STC, and AFL during traditional, laboratory-scale cheesemaking of buffalo mozzarella and ricotta. Fourteen trials were conducted using bulk tank milk naturally contaminated with AFM₁, alongside an exploratory trial utilizing toxin-free milk artificially spiked with all three targets. Mass balance and specific EFs were calculated across all processing streams. AFM₁ was detected in all raw milk samples, showing a strong affinity for caseins. Approximately half of the initial milk AFM₁ content was retained in mozzarella (50.3 ± 3.3%), whereas ricotta retained only a minor fraction (6.9 ± 0.7%), with the majority lost in the second whey (30.7 ± 1.3%). The mean EFs were 2.3 ± 0.3 for mozzarella and 1.1 ± 0.2 for ricotta. AFL was never detected in milk samples while STC was mainly present at concentrations < 1 ng/kg. In the spiked trial, AFL demonstrated stability with an EF of 1.5 in mozzarella, while STC displayed potential degradation within the milk matrix and during sample storage. The experimental EFs determined for buffalo mozzarella and ricotta are lower than the standard factors currently applied by Italian regulations for non-bovine dairy products. These accurate, matrix-specific estimations are essential to prevent the under-reporting of non-compliant samples and to refine international consumer risk assessment models. Full article

Mycotoxins are widespread contaminants in animal feeds and continue to pose serious threats to animal welfare, production efficiency, food security, and sustainable economic growth worldwide. Chickens are highly susceptible to multiple mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFLs), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone (ZEA), ochratoxin A (OTA), and T-2 toxin. Exposure to these toxins can damage intestinal integrity, compromise immune functions, impair nutrient absorption, and ultimately reduce production efficiency even at subclinical concentrations. Conventional mycotoxin detection methods, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and chromatographic techniques, provide accurate quantification but remain expensive, labor-intensive, time-consuming, and inefficient for large-scale screening, particularly when masked mycotoxins are present. The frequent co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins further complicates risk assessment and effective management. Emerging analytical technologies, including hyperspectral imaging, biosensors, Internet of Things (IoT)-based platforms, and machine-learning algorithms, offer promising advancements for rapid detection and predictive risk forecasting. This review summarizes the toxicological impacts of major mycotoxins on poultry, outlines critical challenges in detection and prevention, and evaluates current artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) approaches for mycotoxin identification, prediction, and management. A systematic literature search conducted across PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar identified 176 unique studies published between 2010 and 2026. Key knowledge gaps include limited availability of high-quality datasets and source code, inconsistent model interpretability, and poor reproducibility across production environments. By integrating conventional toxicology with data-driven approaches, this review highlights how predictive modeling can strengthen mycotoxin surveillance and support proactive mitigation strategies in modern poultry production systems. Full article

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that is harmful to agricultural crops. Therefore, the prevention and control of ZEN contamination is an important concern for food safety. Lactobacillus paracasei 85 is a well-recognized probiotic with considerable potential for mycotoxin biocontrol owing to its diverse probiotic properties and antimicrobial activity. Based on its reported potential, we aimed to evaluate its ability to degrade ZEN using degradation assays under optimal conditions. Transcriptome sequencing, untargeted metabolomics, and integrated bioinformatics analyses were conducted to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying ZEN removal. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the strain activated central carbon and secondary metabolism during ZEN removal, and all seven differentially expressed genes closely related to carbohydrate metabolism were downregulated. Metabolomic analysis revealed that lipid and amino acid metabolism, in addition to carbohydrate metabolism, played important roles in ZEN removal. Correlation analysis between carbohydrate metabolism-related genes and their metabolites revealed that these genes were significantly associated with four metabolites: myo-inositol, guanosine, glycolic acid, and trehalose. As key nodes in the carbohydrate metabolism pathway, changes in the expression of these four metabolites and their interactions with genes may represent key regulatory factors responsible for the overall downregulation of carbohydrate metabolism. Full article

T-2 toxin is a typical fusarium mycotoxin that induces reproductive injury. As a male reproductive toxicant, impaired testosterone biosynthesis is the primary reproductive toxic effect induced by T-2 toxin. Therefore, clarifying how T-2 toxin disrupts testosterone synthesis at the molecular level and screening natural plant extracts that can alleviate this reproductive toxicity are of great importance. Lycopene (LYC) is a natural carotenoid known for its reproductive protective properties. Hence, this work assessed the protective efficacy and molecular mechanisms of LYC against T-2 toxin-caused testosterone synthesis disruption. Our results showed that LYC supplementation significantly alleviated testicular structural injury, restored testicular organ coefficients, and rescued serum and intracellular testosterone levels via transcriptional and translational upregulation of key steroidogenic proteins. Mechanistically, LYC suppressed T-2 toxin-triggered reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, inhibited MAPK pathway activation, and prevented ROS/p38/TORC2/CREB axis activation, thereby restoring TORC2/CREB transcriptional activity and steroidogenesis. Pharmacological validation using SB203580 and NAC confirmed the central role of the ROS/p38/TORC2/CREB axis. Taken together, LYC alleviates T-2 toxin-triggered disruption of testosterone synthesis by inhibiting the ROS/p38/TORC2/CREB axis, and we identify LYC as a promising nutritional strategy against mycotoxin-caused reproductive toxicity. Full article

Background Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a potent hepatotoxic mycotoxin that induces severe oxidative liver damage. Kaempferol (Kae), a natural flavonoid with known antioxidant properties, has unclear protective effects against AFB1-induced hepatotoxicity. This study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective role of Kae and elucidate its underlying mechanism using integrated in vivo, in silico, and in vitro approaches. Methods: In vivo (AFB1-challenged mice) and in vitro (hepatocyte) models were employed, combined with network pharmacology, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations. Liver injury indices, oxidative stress markers, antioxidant enzyme activities, and Keap1/Nrf2 pathway expression were assessed. Results: Kae co-treatment reversed AFB1-induced increases in liver index, serum ALT/AST, histological lesions, and reduced antioxidant capacity in mice. Network pharmacology revealed 59 common targets, with NFE2L2 (Nrf2) as a key node. In vitro, Kae pretreatment significantly lowered AFB1-elevated ROS, MDA, ALT, and AST, while restoring GSH and total antioxidant capacity. Kae reversed AFB1-induced Keap1 upregulation and Nrf2 downregulation, and increased mRNA levels of HO-1, NQO1, SOD, GPX1, and CAT. Molecular docking and simulation showed stable Kae–Keap1 binding (−9.6 kcal/mol) with critical hydrogen bonds (VAL-606) and van der Waals contacts. Conclusions: Kae directly binds Keap1, activates Nrf2 signaling, upregulates antioxidant gene expression, and mitigates AFB1-induced oxidative liver injury. These findings support Kae as a promising candidate for preventing AFB1 hepatotoxicity. Full article

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a prevalent mycotoxin contaminating food and environmental matrices that can induce hepatic injury, thereby posing a substantial threat to livestock production. Portulaca oleracea L. polysaccharide (POP) possesses diverse biological activities, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the protective effects of POP against AFB₁-induced hepatic injury have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, a rabbit model of AFB₁-induced hepatic injury was established to investigate the hepatoprotective mechanisms of POP. Histopathological examination and liver function assessments demonstrated that POP markedly ameliorated hepatic histopathological alterations and decreased serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Molecular analyses further demonstrated that POP attenuated AFB₁-induced oxidative stress and hepatocyte apoptosis, effects that were associated with activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and suppression of the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway. Furthermore, microbiome profiling and targeted short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) metabolomics analyses indicated that POP supplementation contributed to the preservation of intestinal barrier integrity and intestinal microbiota stability, concurrent with the attenuation of AFB₁-induced intestinal and hepatic injury and elevated SCFA production by intestinal microbes. Overall, POP exerts prominent preventive protective effects against AFB₁-induced liver injury, which may be closely associated with alterations in intestinal microbiota composition and microbial short-chain fatty acid metabolism, as well as the activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. These findings provide novel insights into the mechanisms underlying AFB₁-induced hepatic injury. Full article

The gut microbiota and its metabolic functions are critical for intestinal homeostasis, but their integrated responses to diarrhea remain poorly understood in non-model mammals, such as the complex-toothed flying squirrel (Trogopterus xanthipes). Here, we collected fecal samples from six captive animals with diarrhea and six healthy controls; the diarrheal animals had been provided with moldy corn, but mycotoxin levels were not measured. Fecal microbiota was profiled by full-length 16S rRNA sequencing and untargeted metabolomics with integrative analyses. Diarrheal animals showed significantly decreased fecal microbial alpha-diversity and distinct community separation. LEfSe analysis identified Lawsonia intracellularis and Streptococcus macedonicus as the most enriched taxa in the diarrhea group. Untargeted metabolomics revealed 2216 differential metabolites (1931 downregulated), primarily enriched in steroid hormone biosynthesis, arachidonic acid metabolism, and bile secretion pathways. Procrustes and Mantel tests confirmed significant microbiome–metabolome concordance (M² = 0.422, p < 0.001). Spearman correlation networks showed that L. intracellularis was positively correlated with multiple differential metabolites, while S. macedonicus exhibited predominantly negative correlations. These findings suggest that diarrhea in T. xanthipes may be associated with moldy corn exposure and is accompanied by gut dysbiosis and metabolic disturbances. L. intracellularis and S. macedonicus may be associated with disease progression through pathways linked to lipid and bile acid metabolism and inflammation. This study provides novel microbial–metabolic insights into diarrhea in a medicinal mammal, supporting disease prevention and healthy breeding. Full article

Pesticide and veterinary drug residues, heavy metals and other hazardous contaminants in agricultural products and food systems pose severe threats to food safety and agro-ecological security. Conventional detection techniques are plagued by complicated operations, long testing cycles and insufficient sensitivity, which fail to meet the practical requirements for rapid, accurate on-site detection and in situ remediation. This paper systematically introduces the fundamental physicochemical properties of typical carbon-based nanomaterials, including graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon quantum dots and biomass-derived carbon. It comprehensively reviews the latest research advances of these materials in the detection of heavy metal ions, pesticide residues, mycotoxins and illegal additives, as well as in the non-destructive monitoring of food quality. Meanwhile, relevant applications of carbon-based nanomaterials in the adsorption, enrichment and catalytic remediation of heavy metals and organic pollutants in farmland soil and water environments are summarized. The intrinsic mechanisms underlying their performance in high-precision detection and environmental remediation are elaborated from the perspectives of optical sensing response and adsorption–separation effects. Furthermore, the current technical limitations and bottlenecks restricting the practical application of carbon-based nanomaterials are discussed. Combined with the industrial demands for rapid screening of agro-food safety risks and in situ treatment of farmland environments, the future development prospects of carbon-based nanomaterials in agriculture and food safety fields are outlined. This work aims to provide theoretical references for the development and industrialization of high-performance carbon-based sensing and remediation materials, and to facilitate the risk prevention and control of agro-food safety as well as the green and sustainable development of agricultural ecosystems. Full article

Mycotoxins are widely consumed food contaminants. Mechanistic studies support potential carcinogenic effects of mycotoxins in the human intestine, yet no studies have investigated these associations in population-based settings. This study aimed to investigate associations between dietary mycotoxin exposures and colorectal cancer risk. Dietary questionnaire data from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) were combined with mycotoxin food occurrence data from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Associations between mycotoxin exposures and colorectal cancer (CRC) risk and its anatomical sub-sites were evaluated in multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models to compute hazard ratios (HR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI), accounting for potential confounders. Food groups that explained the greatest variation in mycotoxin intakes were cereal-based products, vegetables, non-alcoholic beverages and fruits. For individual mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) was positively associated with CRC risk (HR top vs. bottom tertiles [T3vsT1] = 1.14; 1.04–1.24), while patulin (PAT) was positively associated with rectal cancer risk only (HR^T3vsT1 = 1.18; 1.05–1.32). Sensitivity analyses indicated differential results for men versus women with significant positive associations for DON and CRC risk found only in men. In conclusion, dietary mycotoxin exposures may be related to higher CRC risk. Further investigation in independent cohorts and through mechanistic studies is warranted. Full article

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) are cereal-contaminating mycotoxins; co-exposure to these compounds is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma, although the underlying immunological mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the impact of AFB₁ and FB₁, individually and combined, on immune cell function, focusing on Th1-associated cytokines, cytotoxic capacity, oxidative stress involvement, and energy and purinergic metabolism. Rat splenocytes and intrahepatic leukocytes were exposed to AFB₁ (20 μM), FB₁ (10 μM), or a mixture of both (MIX), in the presence or absence of catalase. Cytokines and phenotypes were assessed by flow cytometry and ELISA, cytotoxicity by co-culture assays, and intra/extracellular adenine nucleotides and purines by HPLC. The MIX significantly impaired Th1-like differentiation and reduced IFNγ and TNFα production, FAS-L expression and cytolytic activity while increasing IL4 production, indicating a shift toward a Th2-like profile. These effects were prevented by catalase, supporting a key role for oxidative stress. Co-exposure disrupted intracellular energy balance, decreasing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels, ATP/ADP ratios, and total adenine nucleotide pools. It also enhanced purine degradation, extracellular ATP release and adenosine accumulation, suggesting altered purinergic signaling. Consequently, AFB₁-FB₁ co-exposure disrupts immune function through interconnected redox and metabolic mechanisms, promoting an immunosuppressive environment that may favor tumor progression. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that can contaminate the feed of dairy animals and can be transferred into milk and dairy products. This study aims to assess the occurrence of major mycotoxins in 190 samples of milk-based infant foods commercially available in São Paulo, Brazil, and characterize the associated risks. Aflatoxins (AFs) M₁ (AFM₁), B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁) and G₂ (AFG₂), fumonisins (FBs) B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T-2 toxin were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). Ninety-eight samples (51.6%) were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin, while the co-occurrence of two to four mycotoxins was observed in 32 samples (16.8%). ZEN was the most prevalent mycotoxin (60 samples; 32%), followed by FBs (FB₁ and FB₂) (42 samples; 22%), OTA (11 samples; 5.8%), DON (8 samples; 4.2%), and T-2 toxin (2 samples; 1.1%). AFs were quantified in only two samples (1.1%), one milk-based product containing 0.630 μg/kg of AFM₁ and one flavored milk powder with AFB₁ at 5.850 μg/kg. The analyzed flavored milk powder samples showed the highest maximum concentrations of DON, FBs, and OTA (165.5, 93.79, and 86.77 μg/kg, respectively), while unflavored milk powder contained the highest concentration of ZEN (17.40 μg/kg). Infant formula provided the highest estimated daily intake (EDI) value of DON (1.226 μg/kg bw/day) for infants aged ≤one year. Hazard quotient (HQ) values > 1 revealed a potential health concern for DON in only one sample of infant formula intended for infants up to six months of age. Margin of exposure (MoE) values for AFs and OTA were <10,000, emphasizing the need for continuous monitoring due to their potential toxic effects. These findings emphasize the need for stringent preventive measures and regulatory compliance to prevent mycotoxin contamination in milk-based infant foods in Brazil. Full article

Globally, mycotoxin contamination of maize is a fundamental concern due to significant economic losses and toxic health effects on humans and animals. This study analyses the perceived effects of mycotoxin contamination and the use of control measures among smallholder maize farmers in South Africa using Mbombela as a case study. A two-stage sampling procedure was used to select 152 registered smallholder maize farmers in Mbombela, South Africa. Data was collected with a structured questionnaire administered by trained enumerators. Descriptive and multiple linear regression analyses were carried out using SPSS (Version 28). The findings revealed that many farmers had a high perception of the effects of mycotoxin contamination, and the most prominent prevention and control practices were good field management, storage of maize in clean, well-ventilated stores, and proper sorting of harvested grains. Multiple linear regression results revealed that farming experience, media exposure, extension visit, mycotoxin-related training, mycotoxin awareness, and perception index significantly influenced farmers’ utilization of mycotoxin prevention and control practices. The study recommended that agricultural professionals develop robust mycotoxin-related training and advisory services to enhance and strengthen farmers’ awareness and perceptions, and to promote the sustained use of effective agricultural practices to combat mycotoxin contamination. Full article

Ovarian granulosa cells (GCs) ensure proper follicular development and oocyte maturation through gap-junction-mediated intercellular communication. Zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin with estrogen-like activity, specifically targets and impairs ovarian function. Most existing studies have focused on ZEA-induced apoptosis in GCs, but whether ZEA disrupts gap junctions in ovarian GCs remains unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether and how ZEA induces gap junction injury in ovine ovarian GCs, with a particular focus on the roles of G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), oxidative stress, and the NLRP3 inflammasome. In the present study, primary ovine ovarian GCs were isolated, cultured, and treated with different concentrations of ZEA to establish a gap junction injury model, and specific inhibitors/antagonists were used to investigate the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that ZEA decreased granulosa cell viability and significantly inhibited the expression of the gap junction proteins Connexin 43 (Cx43) and Connexin 37 (Cx37) in a concentration-dependent manner. ZEA treatment also significantly upregulated the expression of the NOD-like receptor familypyrindomain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-related proteins (NLRP3, ASC, Cleaved Caspase-1, and the downstream pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β) in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment with the NLRP3-specific inhibitor MCC950 significantly reversed ZEA-induced downregulation of Cx43 and Cx37 and effectively blocked NLRP3 inflammasome activation, indicating that NLRP3 is a key target in ZEA-induced gap junction injury. Further experiments confirmed that ZEA treatment significantly increased oxidative stress levels in granulosa cells; pretreatment with the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger N-acetylcysteine (NAC) restored the ZEA-induced downregulation of Cx43 and Cx37 and suppressed NLRP3 inflammasome activation, suggesting that ROS acts as an upstream regulator of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Moreover, ZEA treatment altered GPR30 expression levels, and pretreatment with the GPR30 antagonist G15 effectively inhibited ZEA-induced ROS production, NLRP3 inflammasome activation, and downregulation of Cx43/Cx37, indicating that ZEA exerts its effects through functional activation of GPR30. Collectively, ZEA activates the GPR30 receptor, induces ROS accumulation in granulosa cells, and subsequently triggers NLRP3 inflammasome activation, ultimately leading to downregulation of Cx43 and Cx37 and gap junction dysfunction. This study reveals a previously unrecognized molecular mechanism by which ZEA induces gap junction injury in ovarian GCs, providing potential therapeutic targets and a theoretical basis for preventing ZEA-induced ovarian dysfunction and improving animal reproductive health. Full article

Fusarium mycotoxins pose a major challenge for agriculture and the food industry due to their frequent occurrence in cereals. In addition to conventional mycotoxins, modified mycotoxins, including the subgroup of masked mycotoxins, are receiving increasing attention. These compounds are formed through plant defence mechanisms, food processing or biological transformations and are often undetectable using conventional analytical methods. Due to their potential reactivation in the digestive system of humans and animals, masked mycotoxins represent a hidden threat to food safety. This article examines the mechanisms of formation of modified mycotoxins, their occurrence in the food chain and their potential health risks. Particular emphasis is placed on the analytical methods required for their detection, including advanced chromatographic and spectrometric techniques. Understanding modified mycotoxins is crucial for the development of more effective control and prevention strategies. Improved agronomic practices, proper storage and advances in detection methods are essential to reduce exposure to these compounds and ensure food safety. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on modified mycotoxins and underlines the need for further scientific research and regulatory guidance to protect consumer health and maintain confidence in the food industry. Full article