Search Results (5)

DNA and RNA, by focusing on their unique molecular properties, have transcended their role as carriers of genetic information in life and pioneered new application fields such as molecular robotics and molecular computing. However, as these technologies advance, the limitations inherent in natural nucleic acids and their ecosystems are increasingly becoming apparent as barriers to further application. To overcome these constraints, efforts to create artificial nucleic acids using chemical synthesis are underway and are now reaching a new stage of development. This paper proposes a concept of ultimate nucleic acid, “Omega Nucleic Acids ($\mathsf{\Omega }$NA),” as a thought experiment. We discuss the specifications required for this molecule, its implementable functions and approaches, and the construction of an ecosystem centered around $\mathsf{\Omega }$NA. By working backward from the characteristics of known natural and artificial nucleic acids, while envisioning next-generation artificial systems and applications in extreme environments, we aim to explore new approaches to nucleic acid chemistry and provide guidelines for constructing innovative artificial molecular systems. Full article

Redox (reduction–oxidation) processes underlie all forms of life and are a universal regulatory mechanism that maintains homeostasis and adapts the organism to changes in the internal and external environments. From capturing solar energy in photosynthesis and oxygen generation to fine-tuning cellular metabolism, redox reactions are key determinants of life activity. Proteins containing sulfur- and selenium-containing amino acid residues play a crucial role in redox regulation. Their reversible oxidation by physiological oxidants, such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), plays the role of molecular switches that control enzymatic activity, protein structure, and signaling cascades. This enables rapid and flexible cellular responses to a wide range of stimuli—from growth factors and nutrient signals to toxins and stressors. Mitochondria, the main energy organelles and also the major sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS), play a special role in redox balance. On the one hand, mitochondrial ROS function as signaling molecules, regulating cellular processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, and immune response, while, on the other hand, their excessive accumulation leads to oxidative stress, damage to biomolecules, and the development of pathological processes. So, mitochondria act not only as a “generator” of redox signals but also as a central link in maintaining cellular and systemic redox homeostasis. Redox signaling forms a multi-layered cybernetic system, which includes signal perception, activation of signaling pathways, the initiation of physiological responses, and feedback regulatory mechanisms. At the molecular level, this is manifested by changes in the activity of redox-regulated proteins of which the redox proteome consists, thereby affecting the epigenetic landscape and gene expression. Physiological processes at all levels of biological organization—from subcellular to systemic—are controlled by redox mechanisms. Studying these processes opens a way to understanding the universal principles of life activity and identifying the biochemical mechanisms whose disruption causes the occurrence and development of pathological reactions. It is important to emphasize that new approaches to redox balance modulation are now actively developed, ranging from antioxidant therapy and targeted intervention on mitochondria to pharmacological and nutraceutical regulation of signaling pathways. This article analyzes the pivotal role of redox balance and its regulation at various levels of living organisms—from molecular and cellular to tissue, organ, and organismal levels—with a special emphasis on the role of mitochondria and modern strategies for influencing redox homeostasis. Full article

So far, synthetic biology approaches for the construction of artificial microorganisms have fostered the transformation of acceptor cells with genomes from donor cells. However, this strategy seems to be limited to closely related bacterial species only, due to the need for a “fit” between donor and acceptor proteomes and structures. “Fitting” of cellular regulation of metabolite fluxes and turnover between donor and acceptor cells, i.e. cybernetic heredity, may be even more difficult to achieve. The bacterial transformation experiment design 1.0, as introduced by Frederick Griffith almost one century ago, may support integration of DNA, macromolecular, topological, cybernetic and cellular heredity: (i) attenuation of donor Pneumococci of (S) serotype fosters release of DNA, and hypothetically of non-DNA structures compatible with subsequent transfer to and transformation of acceptor Pneumococci from (R) to (S) serotype; (ii) use of intact donor cells rather than of subcellular or purified fractions may guarantee maximal diversity of the structural and cybernetic matter and information transferred; (iii) “Blending” or mixing and fusion of donor and acceptor Pneumococci may occur under accompanying transfer of metabolites and regulatory circuits. A Griffith transformation experiment design 2.0 is suggested, which may enable efficient exchange of DNA as well as non-DNA structural and cybernetic matter and information, leading to unicellular hybrid microorganisms with large morphological/metabolic phenotypic differences and major features compared to predeceding cells. The prerequisites of horizontal gene and somatic cell nuclear transfer, the molecular mechanism of transformation, the machineries for the biogenesis of bacterial cytoskeleton, micelle-like complexes and membrane landscapes are briefly reviewed on the basis of underlying conceptions, ranging from Darwin’s “gemmules” to “stirps”, cytoplasmic and “plasmon” inheritance, “rhizene agency”, “communicology”, “transdisciplinary membranology” to up to Kirschner’s “facilitated variation”. Full article

The human body is a remarkable example of the process of evolution which ultimately created a sentient being with cognitive, motor, and information-processing abilities. The body can also be thought of as an amazing feat of engineering, and specifically as an example of molecular nanotechnology, positioning trillions of cells throughout the body, and creating the billions of unique individuals that have existed since the beginning of humanity. On the other hand, from an engineering perspective, there are numerous limitations associated with the human body and the process of evolution to effect changes in the body is exceedingly slow. For example, our skeletal structure is only so strong, our body is subject to disease, and we are programmed by our DNA to age. Further, it took millions of years for Homo sapiens to evolve and hundreds of thousands of years for hominids to invent the most basic technology. To allow humans to go beyond the capabilities that evolution provided Homo sapiens, current research is leading to technologies that could significantly enhance the cognitive and motor abilities of humans and eventually create the conditions in which humans and technology could merge to form a cybernetic being. Much of this technology is being developed from three fronts: due to medical necessity, an interest within the military to create a cyborg soldier, and the desire among some people to self-enhance their body with technology. This article discusses the processes of biological evolution which led to the current anatomical, physiological, and cognitive capabilities of humans and concludes with a discussion of emerging technologies which are directed primarily at enhancing the cognitive functions performed by the brain. This article also discusses a timeframe in which the body will become increasingly equipped with technology directly controlled by the brain, then as a major paradigm shift in human evolution, humans will merge with the technology itself. Full article

We live in times of paradigmatic changes for the biological sciences. Reductionism, that for the last six decades has been the philosophical basis of biochemistry and molecular biology, is being displaced by Systems Biology, which favors the study of integrated systems. Historically, Systems Biology - defined as the higher level analysis of complex biological systems - was pioneered by Claude Bernard in physiology, Norbert Wiener with the development of cybernetics, and Erwin Schrödinger in his thermodynamic approach to the living. Systems Biology applies methods inspired by cybernetics, network analysis, and non-equilibrium dynamics of open systems. These developments follow very precisely the dialectical principles of development from thesis to antithesis to synthesis discovered by Hegel. Systems Biology opens new perspectives for studies of the integrated processes of energy metabolism in different cells. These integrated systems acquire new, system-level properties due to interaction of cellular components, such as metabolic compartmentation, channeling and functional coupling mechanisms, which are central for regulation of the energy fluxes. State of the art of these studies in the new area of Molecular System Bioenergetics is analyzed. Full article