Search Results (445)

There is increasing interest in structured layered double hydroxide (LDH)-based catalysts because they combine tunable acid–base/redox chemistry with reactor architectures that can reduce diffusion lengths, improve heat management, and lower pressure-drop penalties. This review evaluates LDH, LDH-derived oxide (LDO/MMO), reduced metal/LDO, reconstructed hydroxide-rich, and mixed dynamic states integrated into honeycomb monoliths, open-cell foams, meshes/felts, thin films, washcoats, coated plates, microchannels, capillaries, and additively manufactured lattices. To move beyond descriptive comparison, the literature is assessed using unified evaluation dimensions: operative active state, support architecture, coating/integration route, active-phase loading, coating thickness and uniformity, reactor-volume-normalized productivity or STY, ΔP/L, axial/radial thermal gradients, time-on-stream, coating loss, regeneration recovery, and pilot-readiness. Representative benchmarks illustrate both the promise and reporting gaps of the field: NiFe-LDH-derived monoliths for CO₂ methanation have reached ~70% CO₂ conversion at 300 °C with >90% CH₄ selectivity and only 0.7% post-test mass loss; NiFe-LDH/iron-foam monoliths retained 85% ozone conversion after 168 h; high-entropy LDH-derived oxides showed T50/T90 values of 246/254 °C for toluene oxidation; and Au/LDH capillary films achieved 31.9% glycerol carbonate yield and 3.78 g h⁻¹ g⁻¹ productivity. The strongest current cases are pollution abatement and CO₂ methanation, whereas biomass upgrading, fine-chemical flow, high-entropy coatings, and photo/electrocatalytic films require deeper module-level validation. Overall, structured LDH catalysts should be treated as coupled chemistry–coating–reactor systems whose performance must be judged simultaneously by activity, accessible catalyst inventory, transport efficiency, pressure drop, thermal profile, durability, regeneration, and manufacturability. Full article

Background/Objectives: Skeletal muscle adaptation to metabolic stress involves a coordinated regulation of inflammatory, bioenergetic, and anabolic signalling pathways. This study aimed to investigate the potential role of whey protein isolate (WPI; commercial name: Volapure) as a modulator of cellular responses to stress in an in vitro model of exercise-mimetic stress over time. Methods: Murine C2C12-differentiated cells were exposed to an Exercise–Mimetic Mix (ExM) to reproduce key biochemical features of muscle stress. Cells were treated with WPI (1 mg/mL) using Pre-exposure (Pre-ExM) and Post-exposure (Post-ExM) protocols at 8 and 24 h. Multiple endpoints were assessed, including cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cytokine release (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-17), intracellular signalling pathways (p38 MAPK, ERK, AMPK, mTOR), bioenergetic markers (ATP, glycogen, lactate), protein synthesis (OPP incorporation), and Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ fluxes. Results: ExM exposure induced a stress phenotype characterised by increased oxidative and inflammatory markers, impaired bioenergetic status, and reduced anabolic signalling. WPI was associated with modulation of these responses, reducing ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokines, restoring ATP and glycogen levels, and changes in ERK and mTOR-related signalling. The Post-ExM protocol showed greater modulation compared to the Pre-ExM approach, particularly at 24 h. WPI was also associated with the normalisation of ExM-altered Ca²⁺/Mg²⁺ fluxes. These findings should be interpreted as associative rather than causal. Conclusions: WPI was associated with modulation of key pathways involved in cellular adaptation to metabolic stress, supporting recovery of bioenergetic balance and anabolic signalling in C2C12 cells. These findings suggest a potential role for WPI in influencing cellular responses to metabolic stress, supporting recovery of bioenergetic balance and anabolic signalling in C2C12-differentiated-cells. However, further studies are required to confirm the translational relevance of these observations. Full article

Seasonal thermal stratification in deep reservoirs easily causes bottom hypoxia and a sharp decrease in oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), leading to the pulsed release of internal phosphorus from sediments. Under climate warming, this has become a hot issue for sustainable reservoir eutrophication control. Taking the Quanmin Reservoir in Southwest China as the research object, this study combined high-resolution profile monitoring and a Box–Behnken response surface experiment to construct a semi-empirical model coupling redox threshold effect and Arrhenius kinetics. Results showed that during thermal stratification, the water body below 18 m formed a significant redox gradient, resulting in a 21-fold vertical difference in phosphorus concentration. The response surface experiment confirmed that ORP dominates phosphorus release, and the temperature (T) effect is strictly redox-dependent: warming only promotes phosphorus release under anaerobic conditions (−50 mV), with a 26% increase in release amount when temperature rises from 10 °C to 30 °C, while temperature has a negligible effect under aerobic conditions (+30 mV). Model fitting yielded an ORP critical threshold of −17.2 ± 4.8 mV and a normalized steepness of 0.033 mV⁻¹, indicating joint control by diffusion and reaction. Based on these results, a synergistic regulatory mechanism of redox threshold and temperature was proposed, providing a quantitative basis for reservoir eutrophication management under climate warming. Maintaining ORP above −17 mV through bottom aeration can effectively block internal phosphorus release from the redox threshold perspective, though practical in situ application is constrained by aeration-induced water mixing and microbial variations, and such precise redox control may save energy, supporting the sustainability of reservoir ecosystems and long-term water quality security. Full article

Zeolites, both natural (e.g., clinoptilolite) and synthetic (e.g., FAU, ZSM-5), provide robust, tunable platforms for the removal of air pollutants and process-stream contaminants via adsorption and catalysis. This author-led article integrates experimental and theoretical insights on the adsorption of odorous compounds and ammonia (NH₃) and the catalytic abatement of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), highlighting how topology, acidity, and metal speciation jointly control performance. Representative theoretical results show that adsorption on Brønsted acid sites is significantly more favorable (≈−1.1 eV for NH₃ and −0.37 eV for acetaldehyde) than on Na⁺ sites (≈0.02 eV and 1.22 eV, respectively), demonstrating the critical role of acid site distribution in adsorption selectivity. We dissect structure–function relationships encompassing pore size and connectivity, Si/Al ratio, Brønsted/Lewis site distribution, hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity, and the role of water, with emphasis on hierarchical porosity to alleviate transport limitations. Metal exchange and surface functionalization are discussed as levers to tailor adsorption strength and redox activity, supported by density functional theory (DFT) analyses and reaction pathways. We propose practical design descriptors (acid strength metrics, metal nuclearity, and confinement factors) that enable faster iteration of zeolite architecture for targeted separations and reactions. Sustainability considerations include the use of abundant natural zeolites, low-energy regeneration, stability under humid, mixed-stream conditions that minimize pressure drop and waste. The article closes with a forward look at data-guided optimization to accelerate “engineering zeolites” for durable, selective, and energy-efficient clean-air and process-intensification applications. Full article

Polyphenolic compounds extracted from Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) were used as natural chelating ligands to synthesize copper–polyphenol complexes, which were subsequently immobilized on sericite to obtain hybrid organic–inorganic materials. The complexes were prepared under controlled pH and temperature conditions, yielding structures with different Cu–polyphenol ratios. Structural characterization confirmed the formation of Cu(II)–polyphenol chelates, partial reduction to Cu(I) species at higher pH values, and the deposition of mixed Cu₂O/CuO phases on the layered sericite substrate. Copper–polyphenol superstructures, copper nanoparticles, and copper oxide crystallites were heterogeneously distributed depending on synthesis conditions and metal–ligand ratios. The hybrid materials exhibited modified optical properties, combining the intrinsic reflectance of sericite with UV absorption from polyphenols and copper species. When incorporated into an emulsion matrix, the materials showed promising UV-screening performance, with SPF-equivalent values ranging from 7 to 33 depending on concentration. Antimicrobial evaluation demonstrated that copper–polyphenol complexes displayed enhanced activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans compared to the natural extract, while sericite-supported hybrids retained selective efficacy, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria and C. albicans. These results indicate the potential of dandelion-derived copper complexes and their sericite hybrids as multifunctional bioactive agents for cosmetic dermatology applications. Full article

This study examines the impact of climate change on the performance of Egypt’s fish foreign trade during the period from 1995 to 2022. The analysis incorporates a set of climate indicators, including average surface air temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, carbon dioxide emissions, methane emissions, and nitrous oxide emissions, in addition to fish trade indicators represented by exports, imports, total trade volume, trade balance, and export-to-import coverage ratio. The study employs the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model to investigate both the short-run and long-run relationships between climate change variables and fish foreign trade performance in Egypt. Unit root tests confirmed that the variables were integrated at mixed orders I(0) and I(1), supporting the suitability of the ARDL methodology. The findings reveal the existence of a statistically significant long-run equilibrium relationship between climate change indicators and Egyptian fish exports. In particular, nitrous oxide emissions exerted a significant negative effect on fish exports in the long run, while rainfall showed a positive short-run effect. The results also indicate that approximately 57% of short-run disequilibria are corrected annually toward the long-run equilibrium. In contrast, no long-run cointegration relationship was found between climate variables and fish imports, total fish trade volume, or the fish trade balance, indicating that climate impacts on these indicators are mainly short-term in nature. The study concludes that climate change represents an important determinant of Egypt’s fish trade performance through its effects on productivity, environmental quality, and trade competitiveness. The findings highlight the need for integrated adaptation and mitigation policies to strengthen the sustainability and resilience of Egypt’s fisheries sector under changing climatic conditions. Full article

Polymer-based composites with magnetic properties are promising materials that are able to combine the usual polymer features (low density, high electrical resistance, enhanced flexibility, and processability, etc.) with magnetic properties typically associated with ferro- or ferrimagnetic metals, alloys or metal oxide. The combination of recycled NdFeB powders with additive manufacturing techniques based on material extrusion enables the production of magnetic composites. The novelty of this approach lies in the use of 3D printing supported by an external magnetic field, which is used to align the particles during the printing process and thus improve the final magnetic properties. This approach represents a sustainable strategy for the recovery of electronic waste, converting it into high-value-added magnetic materials intended for additive manufacturing applications. Micrometric particles made of a Neodymium–Iron–Boron (NdFeB) alloy are compounded with a flexible thermoplastic matrix made of polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT). The NdFeB alloy is recovered from permanent magnets of obsolete hard drives and is demagnetized, ground to powder under an inert atmosphere, and finally sieved to a particle size below 50 µm. The obtained powder is mixed with the polymer using a twin-screw extruder. The composite material containing the NdFeB particles is then processed to obtain a calibrated filament, used for the fused deposition modeling (FDM) three-dimensional (3D) printing of magnetic composites. To improve the composite’s ferromagnetic behavior, the particles were aligned along the stacking direction of the layers during the 3D FDM process by printing directly onto a permanent magnet placed on the build plate. Composites containing up to 50% by weight of recycled NdFeB powder were successfully processed using FDM technology, exhibiting increased stiffness, with the storage modulus rising from 123 to 178 MPa at 20 °C, while magnetic field-assisted printing increased the remanence from 11 to 28 emu/g and improved the reduced remanence from 0.21 to 0.49, corresponding to an estimated fourfold improvement in the magnetic energy product. Full article

Background: Dietary crude protein (CP) acts as a key nutritional factor that affects the growth performance and liver metabolism of fattening Hu sheep, with metabolizable energy (ME) representing a major confounding factor in CP-related responses. To isolate the specific effects of CP on liver metabolism and minimize energy–protein interactions, we standardized dietary ME at 9.4 MJ/kg dry matter. Methods: We then established three isoenergetic CP concentrations: 11.07%, 13.07%, and 15.11%. A total of ninety 4-month-old male Hu sheep (with an initial body weight of 27.09 ± 1.83 kg) were allocated at random to three dietary treatment groups, each containing 30 animals distributed across three replicate pens, and fed pelleted total mixed rations (PTMRs) for 75 days under pen conditions in southern Xinjiang. Exploratory combined transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling of liver tissue was conducted to characterize how graded CP levels modulate growth traits and hepatic metabolic pathways, thereby identifying the appropriate dietary CP level for efficient and sustainable fattening of Hu sheep in this region. Result: Results indicated that animals fed the 15.11% CP diet showed a significantly higher average daily gain (ADG) and cumulative weight gain compared with those fed 11.07% or 13.07% CP (p < 0.05). Exploratory multi-omics enrichment analysis demonstrated significant overrepresentation (p < 0.05) of differentially expressed genes and metabolites in key biological pathways—including bile secretion, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling, steroid biosynthesis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling, and oxidative stress-related and oxidative phosphorylation. Correlation analyses characterized two hub genes—ATP6AP1 and LOC101119853—that were significantly and negatively correlated with ADG (p < 0.05), whereas two metabolites—calcidiol and ADP—displayed significant positive relationships with ADG (p < 0.05). Pathway-level comparisons further demonstrated that both the 13.07% vs. 15.11% CP and the 11.07% vs. 15.11% CP contrasts yielded significant enrichment in AMPK signaling and steroid biosynthesis. Notably, calcidiol and ADP both declined numerically in the 13.07% vs. 15.11% CP comparison, whereas only ADP reached statistical significance in the 11.07% vs. 15.11% CP contrast. Conclusions: Collectively, under an ME level of 9.4 MJ/kg, a dietary CP concentration of 15.11% contributes to favorable growth of 4-month-old fattening Hu sheep housed in pens in southern Xinjiang. This level is associated with improved growth performance and coordinated regulation of central hepatic regulatory networks—particularly those involved in energy homeostasis and steroidogenesis—thereby supporting metabolic stability without compromising animal health or production efficiency. These findings provide a preliminary molecular basis for precision protein nutrition in Hu sheep feeding systems and offer translational insights for optimizing ruminant nutrition under arid and semi-arid environmental constraints. All correlations indicate potential associations, not causal relationships. Full article

The reuse of WC–Co cutting inserts is a relevant strategy to reduce tooling costs and the consumption of critical raw materials, such as W and Co. Still, the effect of stripping and re-coating cycles on tool performance remains largely unexplored. This work investigates the wear behavior of carbide inserts coated with four PVD nitride systems—CrN, TiAlN, TiAlCrN, and TiAlCrSiN—during CNC turning of AISI 4340 steel. A single cutting edge was subjected to two complete reuse cycles consisting of machining six workpieces, electrolytic stripping of the worn coating, and PVD re-deposition. Tool wear and surface integrity were evaluated by 3D optical profilometry, roughness measurements, and SEM/EDS analysis. CrN exhibited progressive crater and flank wear with large material-loss volumes and increasing roughness. TiAlN exhibited pronounced built-up edge/layer formation, resulting in mixed adhesion–spallation behavior and degradation of roughness in the second cycle. TiAlCrN developed stable adhesive layers with limited coating loss, and after re-coating, its roughness decreased from ~2.7 µm to ~1.0 µm. The most complex coating, TiAlCrSiN, provided the lowest roughness (~1.3–1.6 µm) and the smallest wear volumes in both cycles, associated with a fine Al–Si-induced nanostructure and improved oxidation resistance. The results demonstrate that multicomponent nanostructured coatings, particularly TiAlCrN and TiAlCrSiN, can withstand at least one stripping and re-coating cycle without performance loss, supporting the feasibility of controlled insert reuse in turning AISI 4340 steel. Full article

Leopard coral grouper (Plectropomus leopardus), a member of the Epinephelidae family, is characterized by its distinct red coloration and excellent meat quality, making it one of the most premium species in the grouper market. Body color is an important economic trait for leopard coral grouper because it is an important factor in determining market price. In order to improve the traits in leopard coral grouper, the regulatory mechanism of body color and pigmentation is essential to explore. In the research, QTLs associated with body color in leopard coral grouper were detected using genome-wide association study analysis. A mixed population derived from 12 female and 12 male wild individuals with significant color differences was established. Meanwhile, the HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color model was employed to quantify leopard coral grouper body color as continuous variables. In the results, a total of 18 SNPs associated with the body color of the leopard coral grouper were discovered. Through functional annotation, we identified four candidate genes associated with body color: ASAP2, NLRC3, ALDH18A1, and E2F4. These genes were involved in chromatophore distribution, contraction and dilation, carotenoid oxidation, pigment cell proliferation and development, and immune-related processes. These findings uncovered new genetic loci and regulatory mechanisms for body color, providing a genetic basis for understanding pigmentation regulation and supporting marker-assisted selective breeding in leopard coral grouper. Full article

Background and Aims: Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a recognized risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), particularly in the setting of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), chronic viral hepatitis, advanced fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Beyond hyperglycemia and insulin resistance, diabetic hepatocarcinogenesis is shaped by metabolic inflammation, lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, fibrogenic remodeling, and the cirrhosis-dysplasia-HCC continuum. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) may influence several hepatometabolic pathways, but the epidemiologic evidence linking SGLT2i use to HCC risk remains heterogeneous. Methods: We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies evaluating SGLT2i exposure and incident HCC in adults with type 2 diabetes. PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library were searched up to 15 March 2026. Adjusted time-to-event estimates were pooled using a restricted maximum likelihood (REML) random-effects model. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE framework and judged to be very low. Results: Six observational studies including 526,446 participants were included. SGLT2i exposure was associated with a lower observed risk of incident HCC (pooled HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.45–0.77), but between-study heterogeneity was substantial (I² = 75.2%, τ² = 0.074). The association remained directionally similar after exclusion of Huynh et al. (HR 0.61, 95% CI 0.45–0.81) and in a DPP-4 inhibitor-restricted active-comparator analysis (HR 0.60, 95% CI 0.39–0.92). However, the 95% prediction interval crossed the null (0.25–1.37), indicating that future comparable studies may plausibly show no protective association. Conclusions: SGLT2i exposure was associated with a lower observed risk of incident HCC across available observational studies. However, the certainty of evidence was judged to be very low, and substantial heterogeneity, comparator variation, mixed time-to-event estimands, residual confounding, and a prediction interval crossing the null preclude causal interpretation. These findings should be considered hypothesis-generating rather than practice-changing evidence and support further hepatology-oriented validation. Full article

Background/Objectives: Bisulfite-based cell-free DNA (cfDNA) methylation assays enable the detection of clinically valuable epigenetic biomarkers but often cause DNA degradation and inconsistent conversion efficiency, limiting performance in low-input liquid biopsy samples. We aimed to develop and evaluate a fully enzymatic cfDNA methylation workflow that preserves DNA integrity and supports quantitative clinical detection. Methods: The assay integrates TET2-mediated oxidation and APOBEC3A deamination with RNase H2-guided primer design, uracil-DNA glycosylase error suppression, and dual-probe detection compatible with quantitative PCR (qPCR) and digital PCR (dPCR). Performance was assessed using serial dilutions of methylated HT29 DNA, unmethylated controls, and plasma cfDNA from colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and healthy donors. Analytical sensitivity, linearity, and concordance between platforms were evaluated. Results: The 40-marker panel demonstrated higher cumulative methylation scores and more frequent methylation-positive signals in CRC cfDNA compared to controls. dPCR confirmed single-molecule resolution and clear discrimination between methylated and unmethylated templates, with occasional double-positive partitions consistent with mixed allelic methylation. Signal intensity across the dilution series followed a four-parameter logistic model, achieving detection sensitivity below 0.2% methylated DNA. qPCR and dPCR results showed strong correlation across the HT29 dilution series (R² = 0.80) and high concordance in classifying CRC and healthy samples. Conclusions: This TET2–APOBEC-based enzymatic cfDNA assay enables sensitive, quantitative, sequencing-free methylation detection under gentle conditions, supporting its application in early colorectal cancer screening and routine clinical liquid biopsy workflows. Full article

Dry reforming of methane (DRM) converts the greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) into syngas (hydrogen (H₂) and carbon monoxide (CO)). Despite its numerous advantages, DRM has not yet been industrialized due to catalyst deactivation and competing side reactions. While Ni-based catalysts have been widely used, they are prone to increased carbon deposition and sintering, and although bimetallic systems and oxygen-based supports have shown promise, their effects on carbon deposition are yet to be fully understood. In this study, carbon nanotube (CNT)-supported Pt-Ni catalysts incorporating mixed oxides of CeZrO₂ and CeZrLaO₂ were investigated to evaluate the impact of support composition and metal–support interactions in DRM. The catalysts were synthesized and subsequently tested in DRM. Catalysts supported on CNTs displayed higher CH₄ and CO₂ conversions compared to conventional ceria–zirconia, highlighting the beneficial role of the carbon nanotube support in improving dispersion and accessibility of the metal active sites. Addition of Pt was found to promote reverse water–gas shift (RWGS) reaction, whereas the addition of La was found to decrease catalytic activity. Despite the formation of a Ni-Pt alloy, the obtained catalysts favored RWGS over DRM. These findings illustrate key limitations and design considerations for optimization of CNT-supported bimetallic catalysts in DRM. Full article

Background/Objectives: Nutritional strategies targeting redox and immune pathways may help to stabilize redox hemodynamics and support immune competence. Controlled physiological stress models allow examination of how nutrients influence dynamic antioxidant and inflammatory responses. Methods: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (RCT), 39 healthy, moderately active men (supplement group: n = 20; placebo group: n = 19) received a yeast cell-derived formulation containing β-glucans and micronutrients or placebo for 8 weeks. Two standardized high-intensity interval training (HIIT) sessions (PRE/POST) transiently induced oxidative and inflammatory stress. Outcomes included reactive oxygen species (ROS; whole-blood EPR), total antioxidant capacity (FRAP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) incidence and duration. Results: Prior to the intervention period, acute supplement intake resulted in a more pronounced reduction in ROS from 0′ to 60′ compared with placebo (−6.2%; p ≈ 0.14). After eight weeks, fasting FRAP increased only in the supplemented group (p < 0.01). Mixed-model repeated-measures ANOVA demonstrated significant time × group interactions for FRAP in both PRE and POST assessments, indicating differential temporal trajectories. The chronic FRAP increase correlated with the acute ROS reduction (p < 0.05; r² = 0.21). SOD activity was higher in the supplemented group at 60′ in the POST assessment (p < 0.05), and a significant time × group interaction was observed for SOD in POST. TNF-α decreased across the intervention in participants with elevated baseline values, whereas individuals with low initial concentrations showed no change. The supplemented group reported shorter URTI duration (−1.4 days; d = 0.34) and fewer prolonged episodes (>10 days: 5% vs. 15.8%), although these differences were not statistically significant. Conclusions: Eight weeks of supplementation with a yeast cell-derived formulation containing β-glucans and micronutrients was associated with differences in selected redox-related markers, including FRAP and SOD, without altering exercise-induced ROS dynamics. The observed patterns suggest subtle modifications in antioxidant-related response characteristics under standardized physiological stress. These findings warrant further investigation in larger and more heterogeneous cohorts, particularly in populations exposed to higher oxidative or inflammatory burden. Full article

This study investigates the role of injection duration in marine diesel engine combustion within an optimised operating framework. While injection parameters are typically analysed in isolation, their interaction within a coupled engine system remains insufficiently understood, particularly under realistic operating conditions. To address this gap, a structured methodology integrating one-dimensional (1D) engine simulation and optimisation is applied to evaluate the sensitivity of injection duration around optimised operating points across multiple engine loads. The approach is based on a calibrated engine model developed in WAVE, coupled with an optimisation framework to determine load-dependent optimal control parameters. Injection duration is then systematically varied around its optimised values to assess its influence on engine performance, emissions, and heat release rate (HRR). This enables the evaluation of the robustness of the optimised solution under realistic deviations. The results demonstrate that injection duration governs the transition between premixed and diffusion-controlled combustion, directly influencing heat release structure, combustion stability, and emissions formation. Longer injection durations promote mixing-limited combustion, leading to reduced peak temperatures and lower nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, but increased incomplete combustion products, including carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), due to reduced oxidation efficiency. These effects are strongly load-dependent, with part-load operation showing higher sensitivity. The study provides a system-level interpretation of injection duration as a control variable rather than an isolated parameter, offering new insight into its role in combustion regime transitions and engine response. The proposed framework enables a more physically consistent understanding of injection control in modern electronically controlled marine diesel engines and supports the development of robust optimisation and calibration strategies. Full article