Search Results (369)

Three-dimensional images of multiphase natural and engineered materials obtained by X-ray micro-computed tomography require quantitative processing methods that can describe not only phase volume but also connectivity, spatial heterogeneity, and anisotropy. In this article, X-ray micro-computed tomography is abbreviated as X-$\mu$CT. Scalar descriptors such as fractal dimension, Betti numbers, Euler characteristic, and Minkowski functionals provide compact phase-level summaries of segmented X-$\mu$CT data, but they do not encode where structural heterogeneity occurs, whether connectivity is directionally spanning, how finite sample boundaries affect topological measurements, or how surface-normal orientation is distributed. We propose a unified methodological framework that extends scalar topological and Minkowski-functional analysis of segmented multiphase 3D images by adding cut-response analysis, including its boundary-sensitivity interpretation, directional connectivity and orientation descriptors, and the rank-two surface Minkowski tensor $W_1^{0,2}$. The framework is demonstrated on a previously published segmented geological X-$\mu$CT volume used as a benchmark multiphase geometry with four X-ray-density phases and on synthetic validation geometries with analytically known topology. The results show that the proposed extensions reveal spatial sensitivity, boundary-to-boundary connectivity, and surface fabric that are not captured by scalar phase-level invariants alone. The proposed framework can be used to analyze segmented 3D images of multiphase geological, porous, composite, and engineered samples, thereby expanding quantitative knowledge about their internal structure beyond scalar phase-level descriptors. Full article

Surface recession can underestimate laser-induced damage in 2.5D C/SiC composites because thermochemical degradation extends beneath the visible pit. Infrared thermography and micro-CT data from six laser conditions (400–1600 W·cm⁻², 3–12 s), together with SEM/EDS observations, were reanalysed using a layered phase-selective model tracking C, SiC and SiO₂ evolution. For the four conditions with resolvable damage, the internal degradation front lay 0.84–1.07 mm below the recession surface. At 800 W·cm⁻², the 0.02 mm difference between the 6 and 12 s front depths was below the 25 μm voxel size and within specimen uncertainty. The calibrated model matched rear-centre peak temperatures with a mean absolute percentage error of 4.37%, although larger transient discrepancies remained. Temperatures sampled at the measured front coordinates ranged from 2890 to 3080 K. Relative to 800 W·cm⁻² for 12 s, the 1600 W·cm⁻², 6 s condition caused greater near-surface SiC consumption and solid-mass loss, while the maximum retained SiO₂ density decreased from approximately 360 to 180 kg·m⁻³. These results distinguish geometric recession from internal degradation and support experimental-front mapping and mechanistic interpretation. The mapped states are condition-specific and do not constitute an independently predicted front criterion. Full article

This pilot in vitro study explored the tensile retention of lithium disilicate and monolithic zirconia crowns cemented onto zirconia one-piece implants using two resin cements and two cementation protocols. In addition, the relationship between micro-computed tomography (micro-CT)-derived cement layer characteristics and retention was explored for lithium disilicate crowns. Thirty-two implant–crown assemblies were prepared using 16 lithium disilicate and 16 zirconia crowns. Specimens were cemented with either an adhesive resin cement (Panavia V5) or a self-adhesive resin cement (SpeedCem Plus) using two protocols: conventional apical-half cementation (AH) and an abutment-assisted apical-half protocol (A-AH). Cement thickness and porosity for lithium disilicate crowns were obtained from a previously published micro-CT analysis of the same specimens; no micro-CT measurements were available for the zirconia specimens. Tensile pull-out testing was performed using a universal testing machine. The primary outcome was the maximum recorded force at the first observed mechanical failure, irrespective of the mode of that failure, so that all 32 specimens contributed a value. Failure occurred by crown debonding in 27 specimens, by crown fracture in 4 and by implant fracture in 1. For the primary outcome, the maximum recorded force was lower for lithium disilicate than for zirconia crowns (medians 347.20 versus 596.05 N; exact Mann–Whitney p = 0.017) and lower with the A-AH than with the AH protocol (medians 304.24 versus 614.38 N; p < 0.001), whereas the difference between the two resin cements was not statistically significant (medians 438.88 versus 550.83 N; p = 0.210). The highest observed mean maximum load was recorded for zirconia crowns cemented with Panavia V5 using the AH protocol (729.9 ± 237.7 N), whereas the lowest observed mean maximum load was recorded for lithium disilicate crowns cemented with Panavia V5 using the A-AH protocol (219.7 ± 105.1 N). In a secondary, cause-specific exploratory analysis restricted to crown debonding (27 events, 5 specimens censored at fracture), Cox proportional hazards regression on the applied-force scale gave hazard ratios of 3.75 (95% CI 1.40–10.01) for lithium disilicate versus zirconia, 6.47 (2.39–17.53) for A-AH versus AH and 1.82 (0.76–4.39) for Panavia V5 versus SpeedCem Plus. For lithium disilicate crowns, exploratory factorial ANOVA indicated that cementation protocol was associated with differences in cement thickness (p = 0.035), while cement type was associated with differences in porosity (p < 0.001). All 16 lithium disilicate cement thickness observations lay between 253.29 and 254.96 µm, a total span of 1.67 µm. Within that extremely restricted range, a univariable exploratory Cox model expressed per 0.1 µm gave a hazard ratio for debonding of 1.24 (95% CI 1.03–1.48; p = 0.024); this is an unadjusted association across a range that is itself associated with cementation protocol, and it does not demonstrate a clinically meaningful or independent effect of cement thickness. No association was detected for total porosity (0.959 per percentage point, 0.717–1.283); that interval is wide and indicates absence of evidence rather than evidence of no association. Within the limitations of this pilot in vitro study—four specimens per subgroup, wide confidence intervals and no adjustment for multiplicity—the findings suggest that crown material and cementation protocol may be associated with retention patterns. They are exploratory and hypothesis-generating and require confirmation in larger, independently powered studies. Full article

Tight sandstone reservoir effectiveness is governed not by pore volume alone, but by the storage and flow contributions of different pore-throat scales, their structural complexity, and their three-dimensional connectivity. This study investigates tight sandstones of the Benxi Formation deposited in a marine–continental transitional mixed siliciclastic–carbonate setting in the Gaoqiao area, southern Ordos Basin. Petrophysical measurements, red-epoxy-impregnated thin-section petrography, mercury intrusion capillary pressure (MICP), segment-specific fractal analysis of functionally defined pore-throat regimes, X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), and pore-network modeling (PNM) were integrated. The MICP responses define three pore-throat structure types and two data-derived functional boundaries at 0.708 and 0.141 μm, which separate large-pore-throat-dominated, transitional pore-throat, and fine-throat-limited intervals. Using these nominal boundaries, Type I is strongly dominated by the large-pore-throat interval, which accounts for 88.7% of total mercury intrusion, whereas Type II exhibits a mixed large-to-transitional response, and Type III is characterized by negligible large-pore-throat intrusion and pronounced fine-throat restriction. Perturbing both functional boundaries by ±5% and ±10% does not alter these principal functional distinctions, although samples close to the second boundary exhibit the expected local transitional sensitivity. Among the three segment-specific fractal parameters, the fine-throat fractal dimension, D_B, shows the strongest association with median capillary pressure (r = 0.834, p < 0.001) and remains significantly related to displacement pressure, median pore-throat radius, and permeability, whereas D_T shows no significant linear correlation with the tested petrophysical and MICP parameters. The fractions of the largest connected pore cluster in representative Type I–III samples are 90.26%, 72.56%, and 64.65%, while their PNM permeabilities decrease successively from 64.32 mD to 0.850 and 0.121 mD. Together, these results indicate that, for the investigated samples, reservoir effectiveness reflects the combined influence of pore-throat size configuration, segment-specific structural complexity, and three-dimensional network connectivity. Full article

The complexity of micrometer-scale pore-throat structures in sandstone reservoirs strongly controls the occurrence state and mobilization degree of residual oil after water-flooding. To clarify the differences in residual oil occurrence between pure oil-zone and transition-zone reservoirs and their microscopic controlling mechanisms, sandstone samples were collected from the SII oil layer group, which belongs to the Upper Cretaceous Yaojia Formation, in the Nanqi area of the Daqing Oilfield, northern Songliao Basin, NE China, and were investigated. Mercury intrusion capillary pressure (MICP), two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D NMR), laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM), micro-computed tomography (micro-CT), X-ray diffraction (XRD), wettability measurement and fractal analysis were integrated to systematically characterize the pore-throat architecture, mineral composition, seepage capacity, and residual oil occurrence of the two reservoir types. The results show that the pore-throat radius distributions are mainly unimodal. In the pure oil-zone samples, the pore-throat distribution is highly consistent with the corresponding permeability contribution curve, whereas evident deviations occur in some transition-zone samples. Large and medium pore throats exert the most significant control on seepage capacity, and the difference in fractal characteristics is mainly reflected by D1, the fractal dimension of large pore throats. The transition-zone reservoirs generally exhibit moderate to strong water-wet characteristics. Owing to the development of fine pore throats and strong capillary forces, water is prone to retention within pore-throat spaces, resulting in pronounced water-blocking and Jamin effects. After water-flooding, the pure oil-zone reservoirs exhibit lower residual oil saturation, with residual oil occurring mainly in a bound state; in contrast, the transition-zone reservoirs show higher residual oil saturation and relatively high proportions of free and semi-bound residual oil. Mineral composition further modifies pore-throat complexity and residual oil occurrence. D1 is negatively correlated with feldspar content, indicating that increased feldspar content helps improve the pore-throat structure, but positively correlated with clay mineral content, suggesting that clay minerals enhance structural complexity. In the transition-zone reservoirs, kaolinite and illite–smectite mixed-layer minerals are relatively well developed. Their velocity-sensitive and water-sensitive effects readily induce pore-throat blockage and increased flow resistance, which are important causes of residual oil enrichment and difficult oil mobilization in the transition zone. Full article

Deep low-rank coal from the Daqiang Mine in the Tiefa Basin was investigated using micro-CT imaging with a voxel size of 1 μm. The CT-resolved connected macropore structures of 12 representative elementary volumes (REVs) were reconstructed, and corresponding equivalent pore network models were established. Steady-state, isothermal, single-phase continuum methane flow was simulated under prescribed inlet and outlet pressures with no-flow lateral boundaries, which primarily represent the flow capacity of CT-resolved connected macropores under unstressed conditions. The results showed that: (1) the S1 group exhibited a relatively compact pore structure, smaller throats, stronger spatial heterogeneity, and poorer connectivity, whereas the S2 and S3 groups contained better-developed and more highly connected pore–throat networks; (2) the simulated mean absolute permeabilities of the S1, S2, and S3 groups were 0.781, 0.969, and 0.910 mD, respectively. These values were generally close to, but slightly higher than, the experimental measurements, mainly because the digital models retained only CT-resolved connected pores and did not account for stress-induced compression or the flow-limiting effects of unresolved fine throats; (3) permeability was positively correlated with pore radius, throat radius, and coordination number, but negatively correlated with throat length, pore-to-throat ratio, tortuosity, and fractal dimension. Among these parameters, throat radius showed the strongest correlation with permeability; and (4) an empirical regression model was further established: $K=-4.809+0.672 r_t+3.950 \tau .$ The model exhibited a high goodness of fit ($R^2=0.952$, $p<0.001$); however, its applicability is limited to the investigated coal samples from the Daqiang Mine. Overall, effective throat size and pore–throat connectivity provide more direct indicators of gas-transport capacity than total porosity alone, offering a pore-scale basis for identifying favorable CBM flow zones and optimizing reservoir stimulation strategies in the study area. Full article

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) is characterized by autoimmune destruction of pancreatic β-cells, resulting in insulin deficiency and persistent hyperglycemia, which impair bone metabolism and compromise post-extraction alveolar bone healing. Heterologous fibrin biopolymer (HFB) has previously demonstrated biocompatibility, biodegradability, bioactivity, and osteoconductive properties under normoglycemic conditions. Therefore, the study investigated the association of HFB with post-extraction alveolar bone healing in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, using the diabetic blood clot as a biological control. Forty-eight adult male Wistar rats were induced to DM1 by a single intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (52 mg/kg). Animals were included after confirmation of hyperglycemia (fasting blood glucose ≥ 250 mg/dL) measured seven days after STZ administration: blood clot (BCG; n = 24) or HFB (HFBG; n = 24). Seven days after DM1 induction, the right maxillary incisor was extracted, and the sockets were filled according to group allocation. Animals were euthanized at 7, 14, and 42 days post-extraction. Fasting blood glucose levels were monitored, and pancreatic insulin immunohistochemistry was performed to characterize the diabetic condition. Alveolar bone healing was assessed by micro-CT, histological (HE), histomorphometric, and picrosirius red analyses. The diabetic phenotype was confirmed by persistent fasting hyperglycemia (260–589 mg/dL) and reduced pancreatic insulin immunostaining in β-cells. At 42 days, bone volume (BV) was 31.86% higher in the HFBG than in the BCG (p < 0.05). BCG exhibited higher trabecular number (Tb.N), while HFBG exhibited higher trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) (p < 0.05). Histologically, the HFBG shows a more mature, compact, and organized bone structure, whereas the BCG presents bone tissue with a more trabecular and immature architecture. HFBG showed the lowest percentage of thin fibers at the late stage, whereas BCG maintained similar values from 14 to 42 days (p < 0.05). These findings suggest that HFB was associated with favorable changes in selected late-stage parameters of post-extraction alveolar bone healing in an STZ-induced diabetic model. Full article

Background/Objectives: To test whether routine T1-weighted spin-echo (T1-SE) and proton-density fast spin-echo (PD-FSE) MRI signal intensity (SI) can index bone regeneration after osteochondral scaffold implantation by correlating MRI metrics with micro-CT and histology. Methods: Twenty-eight sheep with bilateral trochlear defects were evaluated in separate cohorts at 30, 180, and 365 days (n = 7, 11, and 10, respectively). One knee received a tri-layered resorbable scaffold; the contralateral defect was left empty. MRI (T1-SE, PD-FSE) was read by two blinded musculoskeletal radiologists using 10-point Likert scales (T1: apparent mineralization; PD: SI normalization). Contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) between repair-bone and reference bone was computed. MRI measures were correlated with micro-CT (new bone volume; trabecular bone volume) and histology (ICRS subchondral bone reconstruction; new bone; filling). Results: Likert ratings on both T1-SE and PD-FSE correlated with micro-CT new bone volume and trabecular bone volume and with histological measures of repair. PD-FSE CNR was inversely associated with micro-CT new bone volume and trabecular bone volume (both p < 0.001), indicating lower CNR with greater bone regeneration, whereas T1-SE CNR showed no significant associations. Inter-reader agreement was excellent (ICC 0.947 individual; 0.973 average), with good-to-excellent intra-reader reliability (0.920–0.963). Conclusions: Reader-based Likert assessment on both sequences and PD-FSE CNR provide complementary, non-invasive markers of subchondral bone regeneration, supporting MRI for radiation-free follow-up and endpoint selection in future translational studies. T1-SE CNR did not track incremental mineralization and should not be used as a stand-alone quantitative marker in early healing. Full article

Mechanical (or structural) metamaterials offer a paradigm shift in the mechanical response of advanced structures, achieving performance distinct from their base material through architected unit cells that geometrically tailor stress distribution. Characterising these structures demands methodologies capable of capturing localised deformations while reconciling numerical predictions with as-manufactured behaviour. This study introduces a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) based methodology for the mechanical characterisation of three two-dimensional PLA lattice metamaterials, produced by material extrusion (MEX) and selected from a computational screening of approximately 57,000 candidate geometries to span the negative, zero and positive Poisson’s ratio regimes. Predicted and measured Poisson’s ratios agreed to within 0.01 across all three geometries without correction, whereas structural rigidity deviated substantially from nominal geometry predictions. A targeted correction strategy, using micro-computed tomography (µCT) to measure wall thickness at high-stress concentration zones identified through finite element modelling, reduced these deviations from 46% to 7% for the auxetic geometry, and from 25% to 2% for the positive Poisson geometry. These results show that Poisson’s ratio and rigidity respond differently to manufacturing-induced dimensional deviation, and that efficient, targeted geometric correction, rather than full model reconstruction, is sufficient to reconcile numerical and experimental behaviour for these structures. This approach offers a practical framework for the experimental evaluation and numerical validation of mechanical metamaterials. Full article

Liquid biopsy is now an established component of precision oncology, and its clinical implementation to date has been led by cell-free DNA (cfDNA) and circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) assays. These assays report genomic alterations, yet they may be limited by low tumor fraction, reduced shedding in early disease, and incomplete representation of dynamic tumor biology. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and emerging small or poorly annotated RNA species, provide a complementary layer because they can reflect regulatory programs, tissue injury, immune modulation, metastatic communication, and therapeutic pressure. This review explores circulating and extracellular vesicle (EV)-associated ncRNAs as functional readouts in cancer liquid biopsy. We discuss their biological origin, carrier state, biofluid context, clinical applications, analytical technologies, artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted integration, standardization barriers, and regulatory requirements. The technology discussion considers sequencing, targeted amplification, and emerging direct or polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-free strategies as complementary translational routes for reliable ncRNA measurement. We propose that ncRNAs should not be viewed as alternatives to ctDNA, but as potential functional biomarkers that can link tumor genotype, regulatory state, and clinical phenotype within integrated multi-analyte precision oncology. Full article

While computational thinking (CT) is increasingly vital in K-12 education, teaching it through text-based coding remains challenging for teachers. To address this gap, this study presents and evaluates a self-paced professional development (PD) module, “Let’s Code with GenAI,” created for K-12 teachers to enhance text-based coding and CT. Using a one-group pretest-posttest design, 34 pre-/in-service teachers completed the module in 2025, engaging with instructional videos and hands-on coding activities using Micro:bit and MakeCode (v11.3.22), with a GenAI assistant providing explanations and debugging support. Pre- and post-intervention data were collected using the Teacher Beliefs about Coding and Computational Thinking (TBaCCT) scale and a coding/CT assessment. Posttest scores were higher than pretest scores on teaching efficacy and value beliefs (p < 0.001 for both), as well as in coding self-efficacy (p < 0.001) and CT self-efficacy (p = 0.015). Coding/CT assessment scores were also higher at posttest (p = 0.040). No statistically significant correlations were found between self-efficacy and performance measures. Overall, the findings offer preliminary insights into participants’ post-intervention outcomes in a GenAI-supported, self-paced PD module, including self-efficacy, value beliefs, and coding/CT performance, while underscoring the need for future controlled studies. Full article

Respiratory medicine is transitioning from symptom-driven, standardized care to a more precise, patient-specific approach guided by molecular profiling. This evolution is being enabled by advances in liquid biopsy, multiomics, and artificial intelligence (AI) analytics. Fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) and blood eosinophils, the two commonly used markers in asthma, are now being joined by more precise airway markers such as galectin-10, which could aid clinicians in making more informed decisions for biological treatments. In chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) similar progress is underway, with treatment now emphasizing inflammation endotypes, especially eosinophilic patterns, to direct therapeutic choices. Alongside these developments, routine blood-based ratios (e.g., platelet-to-lymphocyte and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte) are being explored as predictors of exacerbation risk, and forced oscillation testing (FOT) is proving useful for picking up early disease shifts. In more severe conditions, biomarkers are linked to an early and better prognosis, enabling timely intervention. Markers like Matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7) and CC chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18) have proven to be reliable indicators of mortality and disease progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Meanwhile, in lung cancer, liquid biopsies, especially those measuring circulating tumor DNA and micro-RNA (miRNA) panels, are enhancing screening accuracy while helping to cut down on the high false-positive rates seen with low-dose computerised tomography (CT). Other respiratory conditions such as bronchiectasis, pulmonary embolism, pneumonia, and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are also benefiting from biomarker advances. At the same time there is a growing push to standardize how these biomarkers are measured. AI-based clinical decision support systems are also playing an increasingly important role in the translation of all these complicated data into actionable clinical insights. Together these developments pave the way for improved respiratory care that is precise and responsive to individual patient needs. Full article

Two-dimensional metallography cannot be used to determine how graphite volume is partitioned among three-dimensional connected structures in compacted graphite iron (CGI), even when the conventional graphite fractions are similar. This study therefore uses archived micro-CT data to determine whether 75FeSi additions in thermal analysis specimens alter the three-dimensional distribution of graphite volume. Three spherical specimens were cast from an industrial CGI melt with 0, 0.15, and 0.30 wt.% 75FeSi placed at the bottom of the specimen cavity. Center coupons were examined using a ZEISS Xradia 620 Versa X-ray microscope, and the retained reconstructed volumes had 3.0 µm isotropic voxels. We decoded the archived Dragonfly volumetric datasets, removed inactive historical labels, and calculated number-weighted and volume-weighted size, concentration, and shape descriptors. Graphite volume fraction remained within 8.56–8.83%, whereas connected object number density changed from 9764 mm⁻³ without additional 75FeSi to 5739 and 6854 mm⁻³ at 0.15 and 0.30 wt.%, respectively. Number-weighted median diameter remained near 13 µm, but volume-weighted D90 increased from 185.0 to 454.7 and 501.9 µm. The largest connected object contained 3.42%, 20.30%, and 31.39% of graphite volume, respectively. The main contribution is a specimen-level three-dimensional graphite volume-partitioning signature that separates graphite amount from graphite connectivity and upper-tail concentration. The results show that similar total graphite fractions can correspond to different internal graphite architectures, which conventional planar measurements cannot resolve. Full article

Background: Composite attachments play a key role in clear aligner biomechanics; however, their structural stability and wear behavior under repetitive insertion–removal cycles remain poorly understood. Limited evidence exists regarding how composite resins degrade volumetrically and whether such changes influence aligner retention during simulated clinical use. This study evaluated the performance of three commonly used composites for orthodontic attachments. Methods: Digital hemi-arch models were 3D printed and attachments were fabricated using two low-viscosity composites (Transbond™ Supreme LV and Filtek™ Bulk Fill Flow) and one high-viscosity composite (Filtek™ Z250XT). Baseline attachment volumes were assessed using micro-computed tomography (microCT). Nine aligners per model were fabricated to simulate three months of treatment, with each aligner subjected to 30 insertion–removal cycles (270 cycles/model). The maximum tensile force required for aligner detachment was recorded for every cycle. Following mechanical testing, attachments underwent post-test microCT scanning. Intragroup volumetric changes were analyzed using paired t-tests; intergroup differences were assessed with ANOVA, followed by ANCOVA. Tensile-force patterns were evaluated using repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: Significant volumetric loss occurred for Transbond™ Supreme LV and Filtek™ Z250XT, whereas Filtek™ Bulk Fill Flow exhibited minimal wear. Nonetheless, intergroup volumetric differences were not statistically significant. Tensile forces were statistically different between groups for most measurements, yet within each set of 30 cycles, they exhibited a similar pattern of progressively decreasing force. Conclusions: During the simulated three-month period, all three composite resins exhibited some degree of volumetric wear and a progressive decrease in aligner detachment force within each set of cycles. The Filtek™ Bulk Fill Flow exhibited numerically higher and more consistent forces and minimal surface wear; however, no statistically significant differences were observed in total volumetric loss among groups, and the observed variations in tensile forces did not appear to compromise the overall performance of attachments, suggesting that all tested resins maintained clinically relevant retention under the conditions of this study. Full article

Rice straw, a byproduct of global rice production (~530 million tons annually), is generated at 80–100 million tons per year, yet a significant portion is incinerated or discarded, causing environmental problems. This study investigated the sound absorption properties of straw from IR8, a high-yielding long-grain rice variety. The normal incidence sound absorption coefficient was measured at three bulk densities (0.140, 0.150, and 0.160 g/cm³) for bundled rice straw structures. Cross-sectional images obtained using a micro-computed tomography (CT) scanner were then used to theoretically estimate the sound absorption coefficient. Each CT cross-section, oriented perpendicular to the incident sound wave direction, was modeled as a clearance between two parallel planes. The characteristic impedance and propagation constant were calculated from this model, and the normal incidence sound absorption coefficient was determined using the transfer matrix method with measured tortuosity incorporated. The experimental and theoretical absorption peaks showed similar trends across bulk densities. A parameter study was also conducted by scaling cross-sectional images according to the diameter ratios of Koshihikari short-grain rice straw and Yumekaori wheat straw relative to IR8. Additionally, reducing the number of CT images to as few as ten adequately approximated the full dataset for a 20 mm thick sample. Full article