Search Results (2,063)

A flexible paper-based surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate with a hydrophobic surface was fabricated through a simple route. The Ag nanoparticle was modified on filter paper through the in situ growth method. The hydrophobic filter paper/Ag substrate was prepared via soaking in 10⁻⁸ g/mL of 1-dodecanethiol with a 12 h growth time. The hydrophobic filter paper/Ag substrate exhibits excellent flexibility and hydrophobic properties with a contact angle of 130.2°. The diffusion of the aqueous solution was significantly suppressed on the hydrophobic filter paper/Ag substrate. The hydrophobic filter paper/Ag substrate could simultaneously improve the SERS signal and fluorescence of the analyte, and that was successfully used for detecting thiram from edible oil with a limit of detection at 1.8 × 10⁻⁸ M and monitoring melamine in aqueous solution. The hydrophobic filter paper/Ag substrate is a flexible, economical, and convenient method for detecting harmful ingredients from oil by SERS. Full article

Colletotrichum species are among the most destructive phytopathogens worldwide, with appressorium-mediated penetration representing a critical stage in host infection. Targeting this morphogenetic transition offers a promising strategy for sustainable disease control by interfering with the infection process rather than solely inhibiting fungal growth. In this study, chitosan–κ-carrageenan nanoparticles (CS–κ-CRG) without and with lysozyme (CS–κ-CRG/Lz) were synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for their ability to inhibit appressorium formation in Colletotrichum siamense, a strain exhibiting low sensitivity to chitosan. The nanoparticles showed monodisperse size distributions, with hydrodynamic diameters of 503 and 333 nm for CS–κ-CRG and CS–κ-CRG/Lz, respectively, positive surface charges of approximately +26 mV, spherical morphology, and a lysozyme encapsulation efficiency of 63%. Both formulations significantly reduced conidial viability and delayed germination, inducing morphological alterations such as conidial swelling, hyphal deformation, and vacuolization. Fluorescence microscopy using calcofluor white and propidium iodide revealed disturbances in cell wall organization and loss of membrane integrity. Both nanomaterials markedly affected appressorium development in a concentration- and formulation-dependent manner. Notably, CS–κ-CRG/Lz showed stronger suppression of appressorium formation, whereas at 200 µg·mL⁻¹, CS–κ-CRG nanoparticles stimulated appressorium formation, suggesting that sublethal nanoparticle stress may trigger compensatory or hyper-pathogenic responses. These findings highlight the potential and complexity of utilizing chitosan-based nanomaterials for phytopathogen management and emphasize the importance of mechanistic and dose–response evaluations before field application. Full article

The epithelium represents the first line of defense against viral infection, yet the precise mechanisms by which viruses penetrate this complex barrier remain incompletely understood. Single-virus tracking (SVT) has emerged as a powerful fluorescence microscopy approach to directly visualize viral dynamics with nanometer spatial precision and millisecond temporal resolution. In this review, we survey recent progress in SVT methodologies, from image-based approaches to active feedback techniques, and assess their capacity to resolve viral behavior in physiologically relevant epithelial models. We further evaluate advances in virus labeling strategies—including fluorescent proteins, organic dyes, and nanoparticles—that enable prolonged observation while preserving infectivity. By integrating developments in optical instrumentation and molecular labeling, SVT is increasingly capable of capturing critical processes, including extracellular diffusion, receptor engagement, internalization, and trans-epithelial transport. Finally, we discuss current challenges, including limited penetration depth, photobleaching, and the complexity of 3D epithelial tissues, and outline future opportunities to extend SVT towards in situ and tissue-level studies. Together, these advances position SVT as a transformative tool to illuminate virus–epithelium interactions and guide therapeutic strategies. Full article

Piperine (PIP), a plant alkaloid with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, has poor solubility and bioavailability, limiting its therapeutic potential in macrophage-mediated inflammatory and oxidative stress conditions. Despite various nanocarrier systems being explored for bioactive compounds, the specific combination of mannose-functionalized chitosan with dual stabilizers (TPGS and Tween 80) for enhanced macrophage targeting and piperine delivery has not been investigated. We hypothesized that this novel formulation would significantly enhance piperine solubility, macrophage uptake, and anti-inflammatory/antioxidant effects compared to conventional systems, while modulating apoptosis-related pathways. This study evaluated targeted and non-targeted nanoparticles synthesized by ionic gelation and emulsification using RAW 264.7 and THP-1 macrophages. FTIR, UV–Vis, XRD, and CHNS confirmed mannose conjugation, while SEM, TEM, and AFM revealed morphology. Physicochemical properties were assessed by DLS, encapsulation efficiency (EE%), drug loading (DL%), and stability. Biological evaluations included drug release, cytotoxicity (MTT), apoptosis analysis (Annexin V–FITC/PI staining), cellular uptake (fluorescence microscopy with coumarin-6), anti-inflammatory assays (extracellular and intracellular NO inhibition, cytokine suppression), antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, TAC), intracellular ROS/RNS, and apoptosis-related markers. Targeted nanoparticles showed larger mean size (162 nm) versus non-targeted ones (78 nm). EE% was 82% (targeted) and 92% (non-targeted). Both demonstrated sustained 72 h release. Cellular uptake was significantly greater for targeted nanoparticles. Both formulations reduced NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines, regulated apoptosis-associated markers, and induced controlled apoptosis at higher concentrations, with stronger effects observed for targeted particles. Antioxidant activity increased dose-dependently, with targeted nanoparticles showing superior intracellular ROS/RNS suppression. This novel multi-functional platform efficiently encapsulates PIP, enhances macrophage targeting, modulates apoptosis pathways, and demonstrates superior therapeutic promise for inflammation-related disorders. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study investigates the induction of cuproptosis in A549 lung cancer cells by doxorubicin (DOX) complexes and the development of pH-responsive bovine serum albumin (BSA)-based nanocarriers for their delivery. We successfully synthesized and characterized two novel complexes: DOX–Cu, where DOX acts as a ligand for Cu(II), and DOX–BTZ, a conjugate formed between DOX and the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (BTZ). Methods: Spectroscopic and NMR analyses were performed to confirm the formation of the complexes. In vitro assays were conducted to evaluate cytotoxicity in A549 cells, alongside assessment of DLAT aggregation as a marker of cuproptosis. The formulation of DOX into BSA nanoparticles (DOX–Cu@BSA NPs and DOX–BTZ@BSA NPs) was carried out to evaluate potential alleviation of DOX-induced cytotoxicity in cardiomyocytes in vitro. Fluorescence quenching and molecular docking studies were employed to investigate the binding interactions between the complexes and BSA. Cellular uptake experiments were performed to assess nanoparticle internalization into A549 cells. Results: Both complexes exhibited superior cytotoxicity against A549 cells compared to individual components. This enhanced cell death was associated with significant aggregation of dihydrolipoamide S-acetyltransferase (DLAT), a key marker of cuproptosis, suggesting the involvement of this copper-dependent cell death pathway. The BSA nanoparticles displayed favorable characteristics, including uniform size (~190 nm), high encapsulation efficiency (~75–79%), and colloidal stability. Crucially, they exhibited a pH-responsive drug release profile, with significantly accelerated release under acidic conditions (pH 5.7) mimicking the tumor microenvironment. Fluorescence quenching and molecular docking studies revealed strong, spontaneous binding between the complexes and BSA, primarily driven by hydrophobic interactions. Cellular uptake experiments confirmed efficient internalization of the nanoparticles into A549 cells. Conclusions: Collectively, this work offers a proof-of-concept for a strategy of utilizing BSA-based multidrug delivery systems for cuproptosis induction, offering a potential avenue to enhance therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity in lung cancer treatment. Full article

In pancreatic cancer, cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) contribute to tumor initiation, reduced drug sensitivity, and recurrence. Limited strategies are currently available to target this cell population. Here we used a proteasome-low CSC enrichment system to identify microRNAs that negatively regulate CSC-like properties. From PANC-1 cells expressing a ZsGreen–ODC degron reporter, a proteasome-low population was isolated through sequential fluorescence-activated cell sorting of ZsGreen-positive cells. Molecular and functional analyses confirmed the CSC-like phenotype of this cell population. Integrated in silico analysis was used to select 31 microRNAs predicted to target CSC-related molecules, which were then evaluated by in vitro viability-based screening to identify candidates that selectively suppressed the viability of CSC-like cells, relative to non-CSCs. Moreover, comprehensive miRNA expression profiling revealed that miR-136-5p was downregulated in the CSC-like population and was therefore selected for further analysis. Mechanistically, miR-136-5p directly targets the 3′ untranslated region of DCLK1 and reduces its expression, with a greater reduction in the short isoform. Finally, in a CSC-derived xenograft mouse model, systemic delivery of miR-136-5p using super carbonate apatite nanoparticles significantly suppressed tumor growth. Taken together, these findings suggest that miR-136-5p restoration may provide a therapeutic approach for targeting CSC-driven tumor growth in pancreatic cancer. Full article

Background/Objectives: Bone-targeted drug delivery systems hold great promise for treating skeletal diseases, yet the optimal strategy for functionalizing lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) with bone-homing ligands remains insufficiently explored. Herein, we compared two alendronate sodium (Alen) modification approaches (pre-conjugation and post-conjugation) for constructing bone-targeted LNPs capable of delivering mRNA to skeletal tissues. Methods: LNPs were fabricated via microfluidic mixing, and the 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-polyethylene glycol-alendronate conjugate (DSPE-PEG-Alen) required for the pre-conjugation method was synthesized. The bone-targeting ability of LNPs prepared by the two Alen modification strategies was evaluated using an in vitro hydroxyapatite (HAP) binding assay. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties, bone-targeting performance, mRNA delivery efficiency, and biosafety of the LNPs prepared by the post-conjugation method were assessed through cellular uptake, in vivo imaging, and other methods. Results: Hydroxyapatite binding assays revealed that the post-conjugation strategy afforded significantly superior bone affinity compared to the pre-conjugation approach. In addition, ex vivo bone fragment binding experiments further confirmed that the bone-targeting LNPs prepared by the post-conjugation method exhibited stronger bone-binding capability compared to unmodified LNPs. The optimized Alen-LNPs demonstrated efficient cellular uptake and functional mRNA translation in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells with negligible cytotoxicity. In vivo studies in mice confirmed the preferential accumulation of Alen-LNPs in bone tissues, with successful green fluorescent protein (GFP) mRNA translation detected in bone tissue sections. Histopathological analysis confirmed the biosafety of the formulation. Conclusions: This study establishes the post-conjugation strategy as the superior approach for Alen functionalization of LNPs, providing a robust and reproducible platform for bone-targeted mRNA therapeutics. Full article

This study reports a self-assembled ternary delivery system composed of bovine serum albumin (BSA), Fe^(III), and 8-Shogaol (BSA-Fe^(III)-8S) to enhance the stability of this labile ginger-derived bioactive compound. Optimized nanoparticles prepared via one-pot coprecipitation exhibited a particle size of 115.14 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.084, zeta potential of +52.23 mV, encapsulation efficiency of 94.93%, and loading capacity of 23.73%. Spectroscopic analyses (FT-IR, UV–Vis, XPS) and fluorescence quenching confirmed the formation of a core–shell metal–phenolic network, where Fe^(III) coordinates with 8-Shogaol and BSA forms the outer protein shell. Compared to free 8-Shogaol, the BSA-Fe^(III)-8S MPN nanoparticles demonstrated significantly enhanced thermal, UV, and storage stability. During simulated gastrointestinal digestion, the nanoparticles retained 64.04% of 8-Shogaol, compared to only 51.38% for the free compound. Cytotoxicity assays on HEK293 cells confirmed the biocompatibility of the nanoparticles. This BSA-Fe^(III)-8S delivery system offers a promising strategy for protecting bioactive phenolic compounds, with potential applications in functional foods and nutraceutical formulations. Full article

Lipid nanodiscs are synthetic nanoparticles capable of solubilizing lipophilic drugs and have been shown to improve the potency of the antifungal Amphotericin B (AmphB) against various fungal pathogens. In this study, the SpyCatcher–SpyTag covalent labeling system was used to couple AmphB-loaded Apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA1) lipid nanodiscs to the receptor domain of Dectin-1, which binds to β-1,3/1,6 glucans present in many fungal cell walls. Denaturing protein gel electrophoresis demonstrated that ApoA1-SpyTag003 lipid nanodiscs could be covalently labeled with SpyCatcher003-Dectin-1-superfolder GFP (sfGFP). In microtiter growth assays with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Dectin-1 AmphB nanodiscs displayed an IC₅₀ 1.5-fold lower than uncoupled AmphB nanodiscs and 2.8-fold lower than AmphB-only controls. Nanodiscs without AmphB and SpyCatcher003-Dectin-1-sfGFP themselves did not inhibit yeast growth. Fluorescence microscopy showed that SpyCatcher003-Dectin-1-sfGFP binds to yeast cell walls and accumulated at hot spots, matching the budding scar enrichment pattern previously described for other Dectin-1 fusion proteins. Together these results indicate that Dectin-1 fusions can target AmphB-loaded lipid nanodiscs to fungal cell walls and improve drug delivery. The results here establish the use of a modular SpyCatcher–SpyTag coupling system for targeting drug-loaded lipid nanodiscs to different cells or tissues, thereby increasing drug retention at infection sites, increasing drug potency, and reducing harmful side-effects. Full article

Salmonella enteritidis (SE) is recognized as a primary etiological agent of foodborne infection and food poisoning. Selective and sensitive determination of SE in animal-derived products is of great importance for ensuring safety in the food industry. Here, we report a highly sensitive and specific competition assay for detecting SE in eggs without interference from background fluorescence, by using persistent luminescent nanoparticles (PLNPs) as luminescent probes in combination with aptamer recognition and magnetic separation. Initially, the SE-specific aptamer (SEapt), as previously reported, was conjugated onto the surface of Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles to serve as both the recognition and separation unit. Meanwhile, the ZnGa₂O₄:Cr (PLNPs) were functionalized with the aptamer-complementary DNA (cDNA), serving as the PL signal generator. The constructed PL aptasensor is composed of the aptamer-conjugated MNPs (MNPs-SEapt) and cDNA-functionalized PLNPs (PLNPs-cDNA), integrating the merits of the long-lasting luminescence of PLNPs, the magnetic separation ability of MNPs and the selectivity of the aptamer. This integration offers a promising approach for autofluorescence-free determination of SE in food samples. The proposed aptasensor exhibited excellent linearity in the range from 1.0 × 10²–1.0 × 10⁷ CFU mL⁻¹ with a limit of detection as low as 32 CFU mL⁻¹. The precision for 11 replicate determinations of 1.0 × 10³ CFU mL⁻¹ SE was 3.4% (relative standard deviation). The developed aptasensor achieved recoveries ranging from 98.8% to 102.8% for the determination of SE in the presence of common foodborne bacterial interferents. The method was successfully applied to the analysis of Salmonella genus in egg samples. In principle, the proposed platform may be adapted to other food matrices by substituting the target-specific aptamer, pending target-dependent optimization and validation. Full article

Honey authenticity control remains analytically challenging due to the complexity of its matrix and the increasing sophistication of adulteration practices. While chromatographic, spectrometric, and isotopic methods provide high confirmatory accuracy, their routine application is constrained by cost, time, and infrastructure requirements. In this context, fluorescence spectroscopy has emerged as a rapid, non-destructive, and cost-efficient screening approach capable of capturing subtle matrix-level compositional variations. This review critically evaluates the application of steady-state and excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence in honey quality and authenticity assessment. Fluorescence is positioned within tiered analytical frameworks as a first-line or intermediate screening tool preceding confirmatory chromatographic or NMR-based analyses. Emphasis is placed on intrinsic fluorophore domains, excitation–emission measurement strategies, and chemometric interpretation, including multiway analysis and supervised classification models. Recent developments in portable LED-based systems, laser-induced fluorescence, nanoparticle-based probes, and data-fusion strategies are discussed alongside key limitations related to matrix effects, spectral overlap, reproducibility, and model transferability. The review provides a structured framework for the strategic integration of fluorescence spectroscopy into contemporary honey authentication workflows. Full article

Background: Rabies is a highly fatal zoonotic disease that causes approximately 59,000 human deaths worldwide each year. Current inactivated rabies vaccines require multiple doses and are associated with high costs. The full-length rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG), a membrane protein, exhibits substantial instability in its trimeric structure during recombinant expression. This instability makes it difficult to obtain high-purity, correctly folded antigens. Objectives: This study focuses on the preparation of a full-length recombinant RVG subunit vaccine candidate expressed in a glycoengineered Pichia pastoris system with mammalian-like glycosylation. Methods: The full-length RVG gene (including the transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail) from the Challenge Virus Standard-11 (CVS-11) strain was codon-optimized and inserted into the pPICZαA vector to construct the recombinant expression plasmid pPICZαA-RVG. The plasmid was transformed into glycoengineered Pichia pastoris X33-7 (low-mannose type) by electroporation for inducible expression. The target protein was purified by nickel affinity chromatography, anion-exchange chromatography, and Superdex-200 size-exclusion chromatography. The structural characteristics of the purified protein were analyzed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The purified antigen was formulated with the adjuvants AS03 or MF59. BALB/c mice (n = 5 per group) were immunized intramuscularly following a four-dose schedule (days 0, 7, 14, and 28). Antigen-specific IgG antibody titers were measured by ELISA, and neutralizing antibody titers were determined using the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT). Results: Glycoengineered Pichia pastoris yeast strains expressing wild-type RVG (RVG-WT) or a mutant variant (RVG-M6: R84S, R199S, H270P, R279S, K300S, and R463S) were successfully constructed. The purified RVG antigen formed nanoparticles with an average particle size of approximately 75 nm. Immunized mice generated robust RVG-specific IgG responses, with titers reaching approximately 6.31 × 10⁵ for RVG-WT after the fourth immunization, compared to 3.16 × 10³ for RVG-M6 and 5.62 × 10³ for the RVG-WT-PEG control. Two weeks after the fourth immunization, RVG-WT formulated with AS03 or MF59 induced significant neutralizing antibody responses compared with the control group (p < 0.0001 and p < 0.01, respectively). The neutralizing antibody titers reached 1:79.43 in the AS03 group and 1:33.11 in the MF59 group, whereas the WT-PEG + AS03 control group showed a low titer of 1:3.72. In contrast, RVG-M6 formulated with MF59 failed to induce detectable neutralizing antibodies (1:3.02). Furthermore, RVG-WT + AS03 induced significantly higher neutralizing antibody responses than the WT-PEG + AS03 control group (p < 0.0001), and a significant difference was also observed between the RVG-WT + MF59 and RVG-M6 + MF59 groups (p < 0.01). Conclusions: The glycoengineered Pichia pastoris expression system successfully produced uniform full-length rabies virus glycoprotein nanoparticles with high purity. When formulated with the AS03 adjuvant, RVG-WT induced high-titer neutralizing antibodies in mice, suggesting a promising strategy for the development of recombinant subunit vaccines against rabies. However, this study is limited by the absence of challenge studies and validation in target animal species, which will be further investigated in future work. Full article

Background: Occult lymph node metastasis (LNM) occurs in 30–80% of patients with clinically node-negative papillary thyroid carcinoma (cN0-PTC), partly owing to the limited sensitivity of current preoperative nodal assessment, and may contribute to postoperative recurrence. Conventional sentinel lymph node (SLN) biopsy, typically performed with a single tracer, has limited reliability for detecting occult metastatic nodes, which can result in either overtreatment or undertreatment with lymph node dissection. We aimed to develop a highly accurate multimodal prediction framework to accurately identify second-echelon lymph node metastasis (SeLNM) and non-sentinel lymph node metastasis (NsLNM). Methods: We prospectively enrolled 301 patients with cN0-PTC between April and October 2024, of whom 131 met the inclusion criteria. Intraoperatively, a dual-tracer technique combining carbon nanoparticles and indocyanine green was applied, and near-infrared imaging was used to record the entire SLN visualization process in real time. For each case, a 3 min video clip (150 frames) was captured. Two senior surgeons delineated regions of interest to generate 19,650 mask images. A total of 2048 spatial features and 20 temporal features were extracted, combined with 32 clinical variables, including demographics, ultrasound characteristics, and gene mutation status. Nine deep learning models were developed and evaluated using 10-fold cross-validation. Model performance was quantified using receiver operating characteristic curves, decision curve analysis curves, calibration curves, precision–recall curves, learning curves, and 12 metrics. Statistical comparisons were performed using the DeLong test, and models were further evaluated using a probability-based ranking approach. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis was applied to interpret key predictive features. The primary outcomes were SeLNM and NsLNM, defined based on postoperative histopathology. Results: The Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) + Transformer model showed the best performance for both prediction tasks, with stable AUCs across training and testing (SeLNM: 0.980/0.982; NsLNM: 0.986/0.983). In the testing set, the model reached the same accuracy for both outcomes (94.7%) and showed strong sensitivity/specificity for SeLNM (94.7%/94.6%) and NsLNM (96.4%/91.5%). SHAP analysis indicated that time-series fluorescence flow features were the most influential predictors, followed by spatial structural features and SLN status. Conclusions: Dual-tracer SLN mapping with deep learning demonstrated encouraging intraoperative prediction of lymph node metastasis with interpretable features in this single-center cohort. Independent multicenter validation and prospective outcome studies are needed before considering clinical adoption. Full article

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) plays a very vital role in industrial and biological processes, but its high concentration may cause health hazards. Therefore, accurate detection of H₂O₂ is crucial for chemical and biological sensing applications. In this work, a ratiometric fluorescent probe was developed using a core–shell structural silica nanoparticle for the detection of H₂O₂. Firstly, a silica core structure with red fluorescence emission was constructed by encapsulating a Schiff base compound (SD). Afterwards, a mesoporous silica shell was fabricated, and the AIE featured fluorophore with a H₂O₂ response character was covalently linked on the surface of the mesoporous shell layer. As recognition sites on the shell, blue-emitting TB molecules specifically identified H₂O₂ through their phenylboronic acid ester group. The blue fluorescence of core–shell structural nanoprobes would be quenched in the presence of H₂O₂, while red fluorescence remained unchanged, ensuring the high sensitivity and specificity of the ratio sensing. This design has demonstrated significant potential for the reliable monitoring of hydrogen peroxide in biological and environmental applications. Full article

This review surveys how nanoparticles and biomolecular nanosized structures interact with model membrane systems, and how these interfacial processes govern their performance in drug and gene delivery, antimicrobial strategies, biosensing, and nanotoxicology. The nanostructures covered include polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based carriers, peptide nanostructures, dendrimers, and multifunctional hybrids. Model membranes span Langmuir monolayers, supported lipid bilayers, vesicles/liposomes across sizes, and emerging hybrid or asymmetric constructs that better approximate native complexity. Mechanistically, interactions follow recurrent routes—surface adsorption, bilayer insertion, pore formation, and lipid extraction/reorganization—regulated by particle size, morphology, charge, ligand architecture, and lipophilicity, in conjunction with membrane composition, phase state, curvature, and asymmetry. A multiscale toolkit links structure, mechanics, and dynamics: Langmuir troughs and Brewster Angle Microscopy map thermodynamics and mesoscale morphology; atomic force microscopy and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation resolve nanoscale topography and viscoelasticity; fluorescence microscopy/spectroscopy reports on localization and packing; neutron and X-ray reflectometry quantify vertical structure; molecular dynamics provides atomistic pathways and design hypotheses. Historically, the field advanced from early monolayers and bilayers, through the fluid mosaic model, to raft microdomains and modern biomimetic systems, enabling increasingly realistic experiments. Key advances include cross-method integration linking experimental observations with image-based computational models; persistent debates concern the translation from simplified models to living membranes, the role of dynamic coronas, and scale/force-field limits in simulations. Future efforts should prioritize hybrid models incorporating proteins and asymmetric lipidomes, standardized reporting and reference systems, rigorous coupling of experiments with calibrated simulations and machine learning, and alignment with safety-by-design and regulatory expectations, thereby shifting interfacial measurements from descriptive observation to predictive design rules. Full article