Search Results (49)

The study of cultural landscapes has a tradition stretching back several decades. During this time, methods have been developed based on the geographical data and technological capabilities available. However, with new data becoming available, new methodological and conceptual challenges arise in linking different types of landscape data. In our article, we attempt to address these challenges. These include historical maps and remote sensing data, such as aerial and satellite images and LiDAR data. We illustrate these using examples of traditional heritage landscapes in Slovakia. We critically evaluated the informational value of historical maps and their connection with remote sensing data. Our case studies focused on using LiDAR data to identify overgrowing processes, historical trackways, agricultural terraces, catchworks and tree vegetation in wood pastures. Digital technology provides new and more accurate data, as well as new ways of evaluating it, thereby enriching existing landscape ecological methods of cultural landscape research. Full article

Agricultural terraces are critical landscape elements that promote sustainable rural development by enhancing water retention, mitigating soil erosion, and conserving cultural heritage. In northeastern Türkiye, particularly in the mountainous Erikli neighborhood of Uzundere, traditional terraces face growing threats due to land abandonment, topographic fragility, and socio–economic decline. This study applies a spatial–functional assessment framework that integrates UAV–based photogrammetry, GIS analysis, terrain modeling, and DBSCAN clustering to evaluate terrace conditions. UAVs provided high–resolution topographic data, which supported the delineation of terrace boundaries and morphometric classification using an adapted ALPTER model. A combined Terrace Density Index (TDI) and Functional Status Index (FSI) approach identified zones where terraces are structurally intact but functionally degraded. Results indicate that 76.4% of terraces fall within the meso and macro classes, yet 58% show partial or complete degradation. Cohesive terrace clusters are located near settlements, while isolated units in peripheral zones display higher vulnerability. This integrated approach demonstrates the analytical potential of drone–supported spatial diagnostics for monitoring landscape degradation. The method is scalable and adaptable to other terraced regions, offering practical tools for site–specific land use planning, heritage conservation, and resilience–based restoration strategies. Full article

The Honghe Hani Rice Terraces, a UNESCO World Heritage agroecosystem, embody a millennia-old synergy of cultural heritage and ecological resilience, yet face declining water yields amid land-use intensification and climate variability. This study employs the InVEST model and geographic detector analysis to quantify water-yield dynamics from 2010 to 2020 and identify their spatial and mechanistic drivers. Annual water yield averaged 558 mm, with cultivated lands contributing 33% of total volume, while built-up areas reached 980 mm per unit in 2018. A 31% decline by 2020, driven by cropland fragmentation and tourism growth, revealed persistent-yield hotspots in forested central-eastern terraces and cold spots in southwestern dryland margins. Land-use pattern accounted for 80–95% of yield variability, exacerbated by temperature interactions. Forests, delivering 68.7 million m³ over the decade, highlight the hydrological significance of traditional landscape mosaics. These findings advocate reforestation in critical recharge zones, terrace restoration to preserve agroecological integrity, and regulated tourism integrating rainwater harvesting to sustain water security and cultural heritage. By blending hydrological modeling with socio-cultural insights, this study provides a scalable framework for safeguarding terraced agroecosystems worldwide, aligning heritage conservation with sustainable development. Full article

Private gardens during the Song Dynasty are an important component of classical Chinese garden design. However, existing research predominantly focuses on architectural forms and construction techniques, with insufficient systematic exploration of the overall spatial layout, the typological evolution of garden architecture, and the underlying driving forces behind these changes. Based on the 400 private garden records from the Complete Collection of Song, Song-era notes, poems, and paintings, this study employs methods from cliometrics and iconology to quantitatively analyse historical materials to systematically trace the evolution of spatial layouts, architectural types, architectural construction, and interior furnishings in Song private gardens while delving into the causes of these changes. The findings reveal a significant increase in the application of “elevated and terraced layouts” in Southern Song private gardens. The rise of unique architectural types, such as boat-shaped buildings, academies, and high buildings with a collection of books, is closely tied to the scholar-official culture, advancements in printing technology, the influence of Neo-Confucianism, and government support for private education. Southern Song architectural techniques saw significant advancements in response to climatic changes, featuring diversified roof forms, upturned eaves, detachable doors and windows, and elevated platforms. The invention of modular furniture, such as the Yanji table, exemplifies the ingenuity of Song designers in adapting to shrinking living spaces. This paper is the first to systematically reveal the evolution of private garden architecture in the Song Dynasty, particularly the emergence of unique architectural types. It offers a new perspective for understanding the influences of society, culture, and environment on landscape architecture in the Song Dynasty, providing valuable historical insights for the study of Ming–Qing garden architecture and contemporary landscape design practices. Full article

Terraced systems represent a valuable resource, increasing productive areas on steep slopes often unsuitable for cultivation. Over the years, these ecosystems have been recognised as having functions beyond agronomic value, such as hydrogeological, historical-cultural, economic, and biodiversity conservation. This research intends to contribute to mapping the terraced areas of the Tuscan Archipelago to estimate the areas falling within four of the seven islands of the Archipelago. In addition to a quantitative analysis, terraced systems were studied in terms of morphological and anthropic parameters, which may influence their functionality or cultivation abandonment. The analyses were conducted in a GIS environment, using the Tuscany Region Spatial Information Database and georeferenced orthophotos acquired from drone field surveys. Through the spatial analyses, it was possible to identify the distribution of the terraced system concerning parameters such as slope, altitude, aspect, distance from road networks and land fragmentation, providing a key to understanding how these parameters may influence the causes of conservation or abandonment of these fragile landscapes. Analyses of the terraced areas showed that the prevalent slopes are between 10 and 30% and that the altitude is variable depending on the island but predominantly between 0 and 200 m. Exposure was found to be the most heterogeneous parameter, and a strong relationship emerged between the functional abandonment of agricultural terraced areas and the distance from road networks. Furthermore, the land register analysis revealed a high degree of land fragmentation, which complicates the management and conservation of terraced systems. Full article

As an aspect of garden space, tea space is an important part of traditional culture and inherited culture. This paper takes 210 representative literati painting images of Ming and Qing dynasties as the research object, combining historical materials, the analysis of painted images and mathematical statistics to transform the representative paintings into visual plan form, and then identifies and extracts the environmental elements and behavior activities in the paintings to build the factor base. It is determined that the main sources of tea activities are Hall Style, Water Pavilion Style, High Pavilion Style, Grass Pavilion and Terraces Style and Combination Style. The analysis results show the following: (1) The tea events mainly occur in outdoor gardens and indoor and outdoor spaces, with windows as climate boundaries. (2) Regarding the use of furniture, indoor spaces tend to use wooden furniture, while outdoor spaces use stone furniture and natural stone, or portable wooden furniture. (3) In terms of indoor and outdoor spaces with tea activities, indoor and outdoor spaces often borrow landscape elements from each other, and screens and partitions are often used as a means of space division in terms of space separation. The findings of this study lay a theoretical foundation for the design of traditional garden tea spaces, and provide a reference for the fine design of contemporary architecture and garden tea spaces. Full article

As a model of ancient Chinese architecture, Jin Ancestral Temple’s spatial layout and functional hierarchy reflect its profound cultural connotations and historical evolution. This paper systematically studies Jin Ancestral Temple from the perspectives of spatial relationships, visibility, and accessibility based on space syntax and visual graphics analysis methods. Through the construction and analysis of spatial relationship diagrams and topological diagrams, this study quantitatively identifies key differences in spatial depth and integration along the central axis of Jin Ancestral Temple. The sacrificial buildings, such as Uonuma Flying Beam and the Sacrificial Temple, exhibit high spatial depth and low integration, reflecting their secluded nature, which enhances the solemnity and focus of ritual activities. In contrast, landscape buildings like Jinren Terrace, with their low spatial depth and high integration, function as open spaces that facilitate movement and act as pivotal points in the visitor circulation network. Visual Graph Analysis (VGA) shows that the central axis area has the unique characteristics of a “visual center” and a “transportation hub”. The plaza on the north side of the reflecting pool forms the core area of visual connectivity, while Jinren Terrace becomes the transportation node with the highest accessibility. This design of “separation and connection” combines visual guidance with traffic flow, providing a layered spatial experience that stimulates visitors’ interest in exploration. Meanwhile, the historical development of Jin Ancestral Temple shows a clear trend of “growth”. From its early single function of worship, it gradually expanded into a complex architectural complex integrating worship, landscape, and belief, reflecting the changes in social, political, and cultural needs in different periods. The research results not only demonstrate the high degree of balance between the functionality and ornamental value of Jin Ancestral Temple’s buildings, but also reveal their unique value as cultural heritage in terms of spatial layout and aesthetic design. This paper provides a scientific basis for the protection and tourism development of Jin Ancestral Temple, and offers a new perspective on the combination of traditional architectural research and spatial analysis methods. Full article

The Mediterranean region is increasingly experiencing intense and short-term rainfall, whose effects on the ground trigger widespread and quickly evolving phenomena including debris flows and shallow landslides which cause damage to buildings and infrastructure and occasionally even loss of life. In this research, we focus on the central Mediterranean in an area exposed to high-intensity rainfall that impacts small catchments which have been intensively anthropogenically modified through the years. The Portofino Promontory is characterized by a high cultural and landscape value where nature and historical anthropogenic landforms and signs coexist. The Promontory attracts tourists from all over the world, but it is exposed to a high number of hazards related to debris–mud flow processes that may impact cultural heritage, tourism facilities and infrastructure. In addition, the ancient man-made terraces that are widespread along the Promontory’s slopes may play the role of being a source for shallow landslides, as this similarly happens in many Mediterranean regions. In 2011, heavy rainfall impacted the similar landscape of the Cinque Terre, triggering hundreds of small mud–debris flows whose combined effect was devastating. To this end, a ground effects simulation was developed as part of the H2020 project RECONECT which aims to contribute to a European reference framework on nature-based solutions, based on the high-detail and -precision remote sensing data acquired within the project. The data allowed us to assess the triggering areas, the transport channel, the observed deposition zones and the interaction with the exposed elements before building a possible risk scenario. The simulation and the entire approach may be upscaled to many similar areas where shallow landslide hazards originating from man-made terraces threatens buildings, cultural heritage, tourism facilities and infrastructure. Full article

The intensifying urbanization has led to the increasing risk of urban landscape character fading away. How to inherit and control the “genes” of urban landscape features is a crucial issue that needs urgent resolution. To address this issue, this study draws on the theory of biological genes, employing methods such as historical information translation, deconstruction and extraction of landscape features, and genetic analysis to establish a research paradigm of “holistic composition interpretation—dynamic evolution interpretation” for historic urban landscape genes. The study applies this paradigm in practice using Harbin, China, as an example. The results indicate that: (1) The historic urban landscape genes are comprised of explicit landscape pattern genes; street and alley texture genes; architectural appearance genes; and implicit human settlement culture genes, industrial culture genes, historical culture genes, and spiritual culture genes. (2) The evolutionary traits of Harbin’s historic urban landscape genes manifest in several ways: the evolution of its landscape pattern genes, featuring “three-tiered terraces, balanced spatial arrangement, surrounded by mountains and rivers, and fan-shaped radial layout”; the evolution of its street and alley texture genes, exhibited through “a blend of Chinese and Western styles, sprawling and interconnected, unit linkage, and multi-dimensional intersections”; the evolution of its architectural style genes, marked by “diverse styles, a harmonious fusion of Chinese and Western elements, grouped interdependence, and adaptation to the times”; the evolution of its human settlement culture genes, highlighted by “a secluded lifestyle, diverse customs, and the coexistence of Chinese and Western cultures”; the evolution of its historical culture genes, distinguished by “unity in diversity and multicultural differentiation”; and the evolution of its spiritual culture genes, characterized by “pluralistic beliefs and inclusiveness”. (3) The essential difference between historic urban landscape genes and other genes lies in their adaptive evolution in response to environmental changes over generations and their ability to reveal the influence mechanisms among genes, between genes and landscape features, and between genes and the environment. The distinction between historic urban landscape genes and other types of genes lies in the adaptive changes that historic urban landscape gene types undergo in response to changes in time and environment. The historic urban landscape gene system itself undergoes adaptive evolution with the urban environment of various historical periods, leading to the emergence and differentiation of new levels. This study can provide new insights into urban heritage conservation, urban landscape management, and rational allocation of urban land use. Full article

The small Mediterranean islands, unique geographical places where coastlines and mountains converge due to volcanic genesis, are among the most threatened environments on Earth. Their marginality, which has historically led to their use as places of detention and punishment, coupled with the extreme climate and rugged geomorphology shaped by terracing practices, has resulted in the loss of systematic land management. This loss stems from the abandonment of cropland in favor of alternative activities and migrations, impacting essential ecosystem services such as the water cycle, soil fertility, and the cultural landscape. The need to counteract the land degradation in these vulnerable areas has been acknowledged for some Mediterranean small islands, including the UNESCO heritage site of Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands, Sicily, Italy—an especially captivating location due to its active volcano. The agricultural abandonment on terraces, intensively cultivated with olives groves and vineyards until the mid-20th century, has rendered the area highly fragile and susceptible to risks such as fires and soil erosion, particularly as a consequence of extreme weather events, as proven in 2022, which saw a destructive fire followed by storms. To mitigate the negative effects of hydrogeological disruptions, the implementation of integrated landscape management—managing ecosystems at the landscape level—has been proposed. Specifically, an agroforestry intervention, coupled with the restoration of dry stone walls, the shaping of soil slopes by recovering the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), and the design of water-collecting devices incorporated with the traditional hydraulic knowledge, may be proposed as a strategic approach to minimize the soil erosion risks, adapt to climate change, and extensively restore the use of traditional agrobiodiversity to support the local economy and tourism. A pilot intervention by local stakeholders based on these principles is described as an emblematic agrobiodiversity-based landscape design project in a vulnerable area, aiming at the preservation of the cultural landscapes of the small Mediterranean islands. Full article

The purpose of this study was to investigate temperature and rainfall variations and their effects on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Konso cultural landscape, Ethiopia, using dense merged satellite–gauge-station rainfall data (1981–2020) with a spatial resolution of 4 km-by-4 km and observed maximum and min temperature data (1987–2020), together with qualitative data gathered from cultural leaders, local administrators and religious leaders. The Climate Data tool (CDT) software version 8 was used for rainfall- and temperature-data analysis. The results showed that the north and northeastern regions of Konso had significant increases in rainfall. However, it was highly variable and erratic, resulting in extreme droughts and floods. The study confirmed that there were significant (p < 0.05) increasing trends in the number of days with heavy rainfall, very-heavy rainfall days, and annual total wet-day rainfall (R10 mm, 20 mm, and PRCPTOT). The highest daily minimum temperature, lowest and highest daily maximum-temperature number of warm days and nights, and number of cold days and nights all showed significant rising trends. The increasing trends in rainfall and temperature extremes have resulted in flooding and warming of the study area, respectively. These have led to the destruction of terraces, soil erosion, loss of life and damage of properties, loss of grasses, food insecurity, migration, loss of biodiversity, and commodification of stones. The continuous decline in farmland productivity is affecting the livelihood and traditional ceremonies of the Konso people, which are helpful for the transfer of traditional resource-management knowledge to the next generation. It is therefore necessary to implement local-scale climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies in order to safeguard the Konso cultural landscapes as a worldwide cultural asset and to bolster the resilience of smallholder farmers. Full article

This study deals with the future of the traditional agroforestry systems (TAFSs) in the northern Mediterranean Basin. Important productive systems, such as ancient non-irrigated olive groves and extensive silvopastoral systems, from subalpine grasslands to coastal landscapes, are being irreversibly degraded, threatening the bio-cultural heritage of the Mediterranean region, an area recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot. In the midst of the global biodiversity and climate crisis, immediate actions are proposed for the protection and conservation management of TAFSs, within a new EU policy framework. Having the TAFSs of Greece in the spotlight of this analysis, a four-step approach was used in order to review the value of agroforestry in terms of (a) biodiversity (birds, mammals, invertebrates and soil biota), (b) agroforestry landscapes, such as traditional olive groves on terraces and valonia silvopastoral systems, (c) ecosystem services, especially concerning cultural values, and (d) the modern threats to traditional agroforestry. Through this research, problems are highlighted and European policy priorities are defined. Our conclusion is that there is an immediate need to revise the European Union rural, forestry, and environmental policies in the Mediterranean region, following the provisions of the new EU Nature Restoration Law, in order to revive agroforestry landscapes and make them productive and sustainable again for the benefit of rural economies, local communities, and biodiversity, especially in marginal Mediterranean mountainous and island areas, where depopulation and susceptibility to wildfires are major threats. Full article

Terraced historical landscapes have multiple functions in mountain land, limiting erosion, enabling agricultural production and constituting cultural heritage. Currently, they are largely abandoned in Mediterranean regions and facing the ongoing impacts of climate change. Our aim is to reconstruct the evolution of land use on the terraces in order to test the hypothesis of the resilience of these landscapes and their age in recent history (17th–21st century). To achieve this, we used various current and archive spatial datasets and GIS knowledge to detect and map terraces and the changes in land use. We tested this hypothesis in a territory impacted by a recent extreme event, facing the challenge of its reconstruction. Our main outcome showed that the optimal use of the terraces corresponded to the demographic optimum of the mid-19th century, and they were gradually abandoned after the Second World War, with significant differences between Mediterranean and mountain lands. Despite this evolution, the terraces persisted and withstood an extreme event, validating our resilience hypothesis and opening avenues for the revitalization of this territory based on this heritage. These findings are drawing perspectives for the future of terraced landscapes in Mediterranean mountains in the context of climate change. Full article

The present paper aims to study the Wachau Valley in Austria as a representative Cultural Landscape under threat from extreme hydrometeorological hazards linked to climate change. The primary objective is to investigate the impacts and assess the vulnerability associated with the events of heavy rain and flooding. The methodology employed consists of an investigation of recorded past events impacting the Wachau; a vulnerability ranking system; a climate time series analysis based on earth observation products; and future hazard maps at territorial level, developed with outputs from regional and global climate models. The investigation we carried out provides a vulnerability assessment of two terraced areas with a surface of about 10,000 m² in total, characterized by the presence of dry stone walls, with different state of conservation in the Municipality of Krems (Wachau). In addition, climate projections at territorial level for the extreme climate indices R20mm, R95pTOT, and R×5day—selected for investigating the likelihood of increases/decreases in events of heavy rain and large basin flooding—are provided, with a spatial resolution of ~12 km for the near and far future (2021–2050; 2071–2100) under stabilizing (RCP 4.5) and pessimistic (RCP 8.5) scenarios. The results indicate a general increase for the three indices in the studied areas during the far future under the pessimistic scenario, suggesting a heightened risk of heavy rain and flooding. These findings aim to inform policymakers and decision-makers in their development of strategies for safeguarding cultural heritage. Furthermore, they serve to assist local stakeholders in enhancing their understanding of prioritizing interventions related to preparedness, emergency response, and recovery. Full article

This study examines the intersection of archaeological data and community narratives in interpreting the Ifugao Rice Terraces in the Philippines, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Long regarded as 2000-year-old symbols of an uncolonized cultural past, recent research challenges this view, suggesting a 16th-century origin coinciding with Spanish contact. The longstanding characterization of the Ifugao Rice Terraces as 2000-year-old monuments cemented a perception of Ifugao culture as static and unchanging, overshadowing the dynamic cultural practices that have persisted and evolved over the centuries. It is crucial to recognize that these terraces are not frozen in time but are active representations of Ifugao’s living culture, which has continually adapted to social, environmental, and historical changes while maintaining its distinct identity. This paradigm shift, supported by radiocarbon dating and ethnohistorical analysis, aligns more closely with local oral histories and portrays the Ifugao not as passive inheritors of tradition but as active participants in their history. We argue for the integration of scientific data with community stories, presenting a holistic understanding of the terraces as dynamic elements of Ifugao resilience and identity. The findings advocate a move away from romanticized historical interpretations toward a narrative that respects the complexity and adaptability of Indigenous cultural landscapes. Full article