Search Results (15)

The refugee population is increasing worldwide, and in South Korea, the refugee population, including children and adolescents, is also rapidly increasing. This study aimed to compare the psychological problems of North Korean refugee adolescents with those of South Korean adolescents and to evaluate their mental health characteristics. Methods: This cross-sectional comparative study assessed psychological problems using the Korean version of the Youth Self-Report Scale (K-YSR) among 206 South Korean adolescents and 130 North Korean refugee adolescents enrolled in middle and high schools in Gyeonggi Province. The inclusion criteria included adolescents aged 13–18 years at middle or high school and residing in South Korea for at least 6 months (for North Korean refugees). Data were collected in October 2025. Results: North Korean refugee adolescents showed significantly higher scores of anxiety/depression (F = 11.304, p < 0.001, η² = 0.033), somatic symptoms (F = 20.997, p < 0.001, η² = 0.060), social immaturity (F = 11.083, p < 0.001, η² = 0.032), rule-breaking behavior (F = 12.851, p < 0.001, η² = 0.037), and aggressive behavior (F = 50.386, p < 0.001, η² = 0.132). Notably, the largest effect size (η² = 0.132) was observed in the aggressive behavior domain, while the somatic symptoms also showed a moderate effect size (η² = 0.060). In the ANCOVA analysis, controlling for gender and age as covariates, female students scored higher in the anxiety/depression and somatic symptoms domains, while male students scored higher in the rule-breaking behavior and aggressive behavior domains. Conclusions: North Korean refugee adolescents experience various psychological difficulties during their adaptation to South Korean society. These results can be used as basic data to detect mental health problems in North Korean adolescent refugees early and develop customized support plans. Full article

This study aimed to assess the interrelationship (comorbidity pattern) between depression and PTSD among North Korean (NK) refugees in South Korea and examine the effects of trauma types at pre-migration, transit, and post-migration stages on both depression and PTSD. Therefore, the study analyzed the data of the 2017 Survey on the Human Right Abuses and Trauma of NK refugees (N = 299) using the Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. The results showed that depression and PTSD have a comorbidity pattern among NK refugees. In addition, the predominant death threat of trauma type at the transit stage had a positive relationship with depression and PTSD simultaneously. Based on these findings, we suggested a transdiagnostic approach and trauma-informed care for NK refugees who suffered from various traumas in the migration stage. Full article

North Korean refugees have not only endured traumatic experiences in North Korea and during defection but have also undergone an adaptation process after arrival in South Korea. Their quality of life (QoL) is likely to be affected by these traumatic life events, leading to subsequent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or postmigration adaptation-related stress, which involves a sense of dislocation with the culture, language, and people in South Korea. We investigated which aspects predicted the QoL of refugees from North Korea. Fifty-five participants currently living in South Korea completed a checklist about personal characteristics and traumatic experiences before, during and after migration. Diagnosis and symptom severity of PTSD, depressive mood, anxiety, and QoL were also assessed. A multiple regression analysis was performed to evaluate associations between QoL and other variables of interest. Overall, QoL was associated with previous economic status in North Korea, present occupation in South Korea, difficulty interacting with South Koreans, depressed mood, and state–trait anxiety. Finally, QoL was explained by having difficulty interacting with South Koreans, depressed mood, and state anxiety, with the model accounting for 51.3% of the variance. Our findings suggest that QoL among North Korean refugees in South Korea is influenced by the current level of their anxiety and depressed mood, and post-migration adaptation-related stress resulting from trying to integrate with South Koreans after settlement. Full article

Previous cross-sectional studies showed that immigrants from low-income to high-income countries have higher risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. We investigated the association between weight gain during the resettlement in South Korea and risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS) among North Korean refugees (NKRs) in this cross-sectional study. In total, 932 NKRs aged 20–80 years in South Korea voluntarily underwent health examination from 2008 to 2017. We compared the risk of MetS and its components between the weight gain group (gained ≥5 kg) and the non-weight gain group (gained <5 kg, maintained or lost body weight) during resettlement in South Korea after defection from North Korea. Multiple logistic regression analysis predicted odds ratio of MetS on the basis of weight change, adjusting for covariates and current body mass index (BMI). We also evaluated the difference in body composition of NKRs between two groups. The prevalence of MetS in the weight gain group was 26%, compared to 10% in the non-weight gain group (p-value < 0.001). The weight gain group had a two-fold higher risk of MetS than the non-weight gain group after adjusting for current BMI (odds ratio 1.875, p-value = 0.045). The prevalence of central obesity, impaired fasting glucose, elevated blood pressure, and hypertriglyceridemia were higher in the weight gain group than the non-weight gain group (36% vs. 12%, p-value < 0.001; 32% vs. 19%, p-value < 0.001; 34 vs. 25%, p-value = 0.008; 19% vs. 13%, p-value = 0.025, respectively). The analysis of body composition showed that the percentage of body fat in the weight gain group was higher than in the non-weight gain group, indicating increased fat mass rather than muscle mass in the weight gain group as their body weight increased during resettlement (33.4 ± 6.53% vs. 28.88 ± 7.40%, p < 0.005). Excess weight gain after defection from North Korea increased the risk of MetS among NKRs in South Korea. It is necessary to monitor weight change among NKRs and their effect on their metabolic health in the long term. Full article

This study identified factors affecting changes in depression of 64 North Korean refugee youths (NKRYs) aged 13 to 23 years (40 female) using follow-up data over a three-year period. We collected intrapersonal factors (emotional regulation strategies, resilience, quality of life) and external factors (psychological and practical support, family adaptation, and cohesion) to understand the preventative and risk factors affecting changes in depression. The trend of depression symptoms significantly increased, and the proportion of people classified as depressed (cut-off score = 21) increased steadily from 45.3% to 59.4% in the third year. In addition, we conducted a panel regression analysis, which showed that individual internal factors had a statistically significant effect on changes in depression. Specifically, expressive suppression of emotions was shown to increase depression over time. Resilience and life satisfaction were significant factors reducing depression in this study. On the other hand, external factors were not significantly related to changes over time in depression of NKRYs. Interventions for NKRYs at risk of depression are necessary and should include ways to enhance resilience and life satisfaction, and foster ego strength by recognizing emotions and promoting healthy emotional expression. Full article

The purpose of this study is to investigate the influencing factors of parental child abuse by North Korean refugees who are living in South Korea. In-depth interviews were conducted with five parents who escaped from North Korea. The study identified three categories of factors impacting child abuse: the weakening of family functions from past experiences before and after defection, the stress of adapting to the culture of an unfamiliar society, and low parenting self-efficacy. North Korean parents suffered from emotional and functional crises from past traumatic events and, at the same time, experienced additional acculturative stress as a “minority” after entering South Korea, even as they continued to deal with Maternal Parenting Stress. These complex factors have been shown to lead to child abuse in migrant societies. This study contemplated the context of child abuse through specific examples. The results could provide thoughtful insights into child abuse among migrants and refugee parents, and provide evidence-based intervention plans for its prevention. Full article

The health problems of North Korean (NK) refugees living a new life after surviving the dangers of life and death traumas is an issue that must be taken very seriously. Adolescent refugees may be particularly vulnerable to adverse physical and mental health issues because of major physical, cognitive, and psychosocial developmental changes during adolescence. This study examines the positive roles two active coping strategies—problem-focused coping and social support-focused coping—can play in NK refugee adolescents’ health self-awareness. The analysis found that “social support-focused coping” alleviates the negative relationship between traumatic experience and health perception, acting as a protective factor. Contrary to our prediction, the protective effect of adopting “problem-focused coping” in this study was not verified. The findings suggest that providing interventions for developing appropriate coping strategies help them live healthier, both physically and mentally, in South Korean society. Full article

While pivotal in the lives of North Korean refugee-migrants, the role of religion has been largely neglected in most studies. After being exposed to Protestant missionary networks, either while dwelling in Northeast China or en route to the South, about 80 percent of North Korean refugee-migrants arriving in South Korea affiliate themselves with Protestant churches. This implies that they are exposed to Protestant missionary networks either while dwelling in Northeast China or en route to the South. Some who leave South Korea for other countries or seek asylum in non-Korean societies develop their religiosity in various ways and for various reasons, as part of their aspirations, adjustment to new homes, and search for meaning. The present study aims to address this literature gap. Based on long-term ethnographic research with North Korean refugee-migrants living in South Korea, China, and Europe, the two ethnographic vignettes presented in this article represent those who are in Germany and the United Kingdom by discussing the religious encounters and conversions through which North Korean refugee-migrants make their lives and futures. It draws attention to religion as a lens through which the migrants’ negotiation of meanings, new selves and homelands, and hopes for the future can be better illuminated. The findings of this study suggest that when North Korean Christians experience religious conversion during their perilous journeys, it not only helps them to negotiate a new sense of belonging in their host societies, but it also mobilizes them to contest the existing order of things. Full article

This study investigated change in depression and revealed factors related to change using one-year follow-up data. A sample of 108 North Korean Refugee Youths (NKRYs) aged 13 to 26 years (66 females) was recruited from two alternative schools for NKRYs in South Korea. Based on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale cut-off score of 16, respondents were grouped based on change in depression score after one year as stable low, alleviated, deteriorated, or prolonged. Multinomial logistic regression assessed the influence of baseline psychological scores (resilience, emotional regulation strategy, and self-esteem), and reported social support (psychological/practical) on the odds of group classification. With the stable low group as the reference category, those with alleviated depression at Time 2 had significantly higher odds of expressive suppression and tended to have lower self-esteem at Time 1. The deteriorated depression group was more likely than the stable low group to have lower resilience and cognitive appraisal scores. Those with prolonged high depression were more likely than the stable low group to have lower resilience, less practical social support, and lower self-esteem. Psychological interventions, particularly those focused on increasing self-esteem and resilience, could be helpful for NKRYs with potential risk of depression. In addition, practical support should be provided on an as-needed basis to prevent chronic depression among NKRYs. Full article

This study investigated the factors associated with suicidal ideation among 174 North Korean refugees (aged 13–27 years) residing in South Korea. Specifically, we compared sociodemographic, familial, social, and psychological characteristics between participants with and without suicidal ideation. Twenty-nine refugees (16.7%) had exhibited suicidal ideation in the past 12 months. These refugees had significantly lower levels of familial cohesion (U = 1459.0; p < 0.001), self-esteem (U = 1032.0; p < 0.001), and resilience (U = 1190.0; p < 0.001), as well as higher levels of expressional suppression (U = 1202.5; p < 0.001) and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (U = 1303.0; p = 0.001), (with Cohen’s d > 0.5), compared to those without suicidal ideation. A multiple logistic regression analysis showed that the level of emotional suppression and familial cohesion were significantly associated with suicidal ideation, after controlling for the other variables. Familial and individual interventions, particularly those focused on encouraging emotional expression and familial cohesion, will be useful for North Korean refugee youth, who have a high risk of suicide. Full article

Previous studies on obesity status among North Korean refugees (NKRs) have been limited. We investigated mean body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), and general and central obesity prevalence among NKRs in South Korea (SK) by duration after defection from North Korea (NK), using cross-sectional data of the North Korean Refugee Health in South Korea (NORNS) study and compared these data with a sample from the general South Korean population (the fifth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). The prevalence of general and central obesity among NKRs with duration after defection from NK of less than five years were lower than among South Koreans, except for central obesity among NKR females (obesity prevalence, 19% (12–27%) vs. 39% (34–44%) for NK vs. SK males (p < 0.001) and 19% (14–24%) vs. 27% (24–29%) for NK vs. SK females (p = 0.076); central obesity prevalence, 13% (6–19%) vs. 24% (20–29%) for NK vs. SK males (p = 0.011) and 22% (17–28%) vs. 20% (18–22%) for NK vs. SK females (p = 0.382)). The prevalence of general and central obesity among NKRs with duration after defection from NK (≥10 years) were comparable to those of South Koreans in both genders (obesity prevalence, 34% (18–50%) vs. 39% (34–44%) for NK vs. SK males (p = 0.690) and 23% (18–29%) vs. 27% (24–29%) for NK vs. SK females (0.794); central obesity prevalence, 21% (7–34%) vs. 24% (20–29%) for NK vs. SK males (p = 0.642); 22% (17–28%) vs. 20% (18–22%) for NK vs. SK females (p = 0.382)). Male sex, age and longer duration after defection from NK (≥10 years) were positively associated with obesity. As for central obesity, age was the only independently associated factor. NKR females with duration after defection from NK of less than five years had comparable central obesity prevalence to South Korean females in spite of a lower BMI, which suggests that we need further monitoring for their metabolic health among NKRs in SK. Full article

While there is abundant literature on the positive correlation between refugee post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social isolation, few studies have examined the moderating effects of formal and informal interpersonal support. This study on 154 refugee women from North Korea examines the moderating effects of formal and informal interpersonal support on the relationship between PTSD and social isolation. Data from the 2012 survey of the Ministry of Gender Equality and Family in South Korea Study on Support for Independent Living Tailored to North Korean Refugee Women Exposed to Violence were included in the present study. The study results confirmed the positive correlation between PTSD and social isolation and verified the protective effects of formal support. These findings will contribute to policy changes and early proactive interventions to reduce the social isolation of North Korean refugee women in South Korea. Full article

North Korean refugees experience adaptation difficulties, along with a wide range of psychological problems. Accordingly, this study examined the associations between early traumatic experiences, negative automatic thoughts, and depression among young North Korean refugees living in South Korea. Specifically, we examined how different factors of negative automatic thoughts would mediate the relationship between early trauma and depressive symptoms. A total of 109 North Korean refugees aged 13–29 years were recruited from two alternative schools. Our path analysis indicated that early trauma was positively linked with thoughts of personal failure, physical threat, and hostility, but not with thoughts of social threat. The link with depressive symptoms was only significant for thoughts of personal failure. After removing all non-significant pathways, the model revealed that early traumatic experiences were positively associated with depressive symptoms (ß = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.48–0.73) via thoughts of personal failure (ß = 0.17, 95% CI = 0.08–0.28), as well as directly (ß = 0.44, 95% CI = 0.27–0.59). Interventions that target negative cognitions of personal failure may be helpful for North Korean refugees at risk of depression. Full article

We examined factors affecting the depressive symptoms and the relationship between depression and quality of life among 131 North Korean adolescent refugees aged 12–24 years. We compared sociodemographic, social, and individual characteristics and perceived the quality of life between participants with and without depression. Thirty-seven refugees (28.2%) had clinically significant depressive symptoms. The refugees with depression were younger (t = 2.67; p = 0.009), more likely to be male (χ² = 6.98; p = 0.009), and more likely to have a Chinese father (χ² = 9.05; p = 0.003) than those without depression. The refugees with depression had lower levels of psychological social support (t = 2.96; p = 0.004) and resilience (t = 4.24; p < 0.001) and higher levels of alcohol problems (t = −2.08; p = 0.043), aggression (t = −3.15; p = 0.003), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; t = −2.89; p = 0.004). They also reported lower levels of life satisfaction (t = 3.31; p = 0.001) and had a more negative view of their future (t = 2.68; p = 0.010). Interventions to increase resilience, to decrease the impact of traumatic events, and to provide psychological support may be helpful for North Korean adolescent refugees at risk of depression. Full article

The purpose of this paper is to challenge the dominant narrative of Christian service providers working for North Korean refugees’ welfare, and to articulate the perspectives of non-Christian aid recipients, especially North Korean refugees in China and South Korea. Drawing upon postcolonialism, I will unpack dysfunctions of Christian missions and ministries while relating them to anthropological insights and ethnographic research data. As a Christian scholar, I attempt to invite Christian leaders and field workers to engage in critical reflections on their goals, dispositions, and strategies in relating to the culturally, politically, and economically marginalized. This paper is aimed to offer opportunities for Christian missionaries to critique their colonial models and to reclaim their missions that decolonize both missionaries and the missionized. Full article