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18 pages, 352 KiB  
Article
Kristofer Schipper (1934–2021) and Grotto Heavens: Daoist Ecology, Mountain Politics, and Local Identity
by Peiwei Wang
Religions 2025, 16(8), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16080977 - 28 Jul 2025
Viewed by 354
Abstract
This article explores Schipper’s scholarly contributions to the study of dongtian fudi (grotto heavens and blessed lands) and specifically situates this project in its broader intellectual context and Schipper’s own research. While Schipper was not the first to open discussions on this topic, [...] Read more.
This article explores Schipper’s scholarly contributions to the study of dongtian fudi (grotto heavens and blessed lands) and specifically situates this project in its broader intellectual context and Schipper’s own research. While Schipper was not the first to open discussions on this topic, his research in this direction still offers profound insights, such as the coinage of the concept of “Daoist Ecology” and his views on mountain politics. This article argues that Schipper’s work on dongtian fudi is a response to the school of Deep Ecology and its critics, and also a result of critical reflection on the modern dichotomy between nature and culture. In Schipper’s enquiry of dongtian fudi, the “mountain” stands as the central concept: it is not only the essential component of Daoist sacred geography, but a holistic site in which nature and society are interwoven, endowed with both material and sacred significance. Through his analysis of the Daoist practice of abstinence from grain (duangu), Schipper reveals how mountains serve as spaces for retreat from agrarian society and state control, and how they embody “shatter zones” where the reach of centralized power is relatively attenuated. The article also further links Schipper’s project of Beijing as a Holy City to his study of dongtian fudi. For Schipper, the former affirms the universality of the locality (i.e., the unofficial China, the country of people), while the latter envisages the vision of rewriting China from plural localities. Taken together, these efforts point toward a theoretical framework that moves beyond conventional sociological paradigms, one that embraces a total worldly perspective, in which the livelihoods of local societies and their daily lives are truly appreciated as a totality that encompasses both nature and culture. Schipper’s works related to dongtian fudi, though they are rather concise, still significantly broaden the scope of Daoist studies and, moreover, provide novel insights into the complexity of Chinese religion and society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heavens and Grottos: New Explorations in Daoist Cosmography)
44 pages, 15871 KiB  
Article
Space Gene Quantification and Mapping of Traditional Settlements in Jiangnan Water Town: Evidence from Yubei Village in the Nanxi River Basin
by Yuhao Huang, Zibin Ye, Qian Zhang, Yile Chen and Wenkun Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2571; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142571 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 327
Abstract
The spatial genes of rural settlements show a lot of different traditional settlement traits, which makes them a great starting point for studying rural spatial morphology. However, qualitative and macro-regional statistical indicators are usually used to find and extract rural settlement spatial genes. [...] Read more.
The spatial genes of rural settlements show a lot of different traditional settlement traits, which makes them a great starting point for studying rural spatial morphology. However, qualitative and macro-regional statistical indicators are usually used to find and extract rural settlement spatial genes. Taking Yubei Village in the Nanxi River Basin as an example, this study combined remote sensing images, real-time drone mapping, GIS (geographic information system), and space syntax, extracted 12 key indicators from five dimensions (landform and water features (environment), boundary morphology, spatial structure, street scale, and building scale), and quantitatively “decoded” the spatial genes of the settlement. The results showed that (1) the settlement is a “three mountains and one water” pattern, with cultivated land accounting for 37.4% and forest land accounting for 34.3% of the area within the 500 m buffer zone, while the landscape spatial diversity index (LSDI) is 0.708. (2) The boundary morphology is compact and agglomerated, and locally complex but overall orderly, with an aspect ratio of 1.04, a comprehensive morphological index of 1.53, and a comprehensive fractal dimension of 1.31. (3) The settlement is a “clan core–radial lane” network: the global integration degree of the axis to the holy hall is the highest (0.707), and the local integration degree R3 peak of the six-room ancestral hall reaches 2.255. Most lane widths are concentrated between 1.2 and 2.8 m, and the eaves are mostly higher than 4 m, forming a typical “narrow lanes and high houses” water town streetscape. (4) The architectural style is a combination of black bricks and gray tiles, gable roofs and horsehead walls, and “I”-shaped planes (63.95%). This study ultimately constructed a settlement space gene map and digital library, providing a replicable quantitative process for the diagnosis of Jiangnan water town settlements and heritage protection planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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41 pages, 424 KiB  
Article
Rationalising the First Crusade (1095–1099): Rupert of Deutz, the Roman Conquest of Jerusalem, and the Twists of Salvation History
by Alexander Marx
Religions 2025, 16(7), 919; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070919 - 16 Jul 2025
Viewed by 300
Abstract
Many contemporaries considered the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 as a significant moment in Salvation History. This article investigates how the reception of the Roman conquest of the city (70 CE) contributed to such an understanding. The important Benedictine exegete Rupert of [...] Read more.
Many contemporaries considered the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 as a significant moment in Salvation History. This article investigates how the reception of the Roman conquest of the city (70 CE) contributed to such an understanding. The important Benedictine exegete Rupert of Deutz (c. 1070–1129) refers to the Roman conquest in 79 passages within his opus, notably in his various biblical commentaries. This case study shows how the past event provided a rationale, exegetical and providential in nature, to understand three dimensions: (a) the role of the Jews, especially that it had been necessary to deprive them of the Holy Land; (b) the current situation of and purpose of Christians in the Holy Land; and (c) the End of Time, which was expected in Jerusalem, and which Rupert anchored already significantly in his own present. His commentary on John’s Revelation even asserted that the Roman conquest had opened the sixth of seven seals (Rev. 6:12). Therefore, the Apocalypse had been ongoing since 70 CE—but only in the Holy Land, a fact that made it necessary for Christians to travel there. The article thus demonstrates that biblical commentaries are potent sources for both crusade studies and historical research in general. Full article
14 pages, 1723 KiB  
Article
The Social Network of the Holy Land
by Christian Canu Højgaard
Religions 2025, 16(7), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070843 - 25 Jun 2025
Viewed by 371
Abstract
The so-called Holiness Code (Leviticus 17–26) describes the land (אֶרֶץ) almost as a human being. In biblical scholarship on this law-text, the land has often been explained as an independent agent and more powerful than even the human beings that are present in [...] Read more.
The so-called Holiness Code (Leviticus 17–26) describes the land (אֶרֶץ) almost as a human being. In biblical scholarship on this law-text, the land has often been explained as an independent agent and more powerful than even the human beings that are present in the text. This paper will use social network analysis to test these conclusions and provide a more detailed account of the role of the land. The paper sets out to develop a social network model of the Holiness Code by including all interactions among human/divine participants and physical space. The paper then explores how human/divine participants relate to space, and it is shown that the participant roles are closely connected to access to space. Afterwards, the social role of the land is scrutinized by exploring each of its relationships, and by conducting a cluster analysis to understand the structural properties of the network. It is shown that the land is not as central and agentive as is usually thought but, rather, that the land plays a secondary role as a vulnerable character in need of protection. The paper is concluded by reflections on the potential of social network analysis for understanding character roles in literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Approaches to Ancient Jewish and Christian Texts)
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14 pages, 8984 KiB  
Article
Shared Memory and History: The Abrahamic Legacy in Medieval Judaeo-Arabic Poetry from the Cairo Genizah
by Ahmed Mohamed Sheir
Religions 2024, 15(12), 1431; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121431 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1859
Abstract
The Cairo Genizah collections provide scholars with a profound insight into Jewish culture, history, and the deeply intertwined relationships between Jews, Muslims, and Christians. Among these treasures are often overlooked Arabic poetic fragments from the eleventh to fifteenth centuries, which illuminate the shared [...] Read more.
The Cairo Genizah collections provide scholars with a profound insight into Jewish culture, history, and the deeply intertwined relationships between Jews, Muslims, and Christians. Among these treasures are often overlooked Arabic poetic fragments from the eleventh to fifteenth centuries, which illuminate the shared Abrahamic legacy. This paper explores mainly two unpublished poetic fragments written in Judaeo-Arabic (Arabic in Hebrew script), analyzing how they reflect a shared Jewish–Muslim cultural memory and history, particularly through the reverence for Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and other key figures central to both traditions across the medieval Mediterranean and Middle East. By situating these poetic voices within broader historical and cultural contexts, this study underscores the role of poetry in reflecting sociocultural and historical dimensions while fostering cross-cultural and religious coexistence. It demonstrates how poetry acts as a bridge between religion, history, and culture by revealing the shared Abrahamic heritage of Jews and Muslims within two Arabic poetic fragments from the Cairo Genizah. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Jewish-Muslim Relations in the Past and Present)
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19 pages, 387 KiB  
Article
“Written upon the Stones”: Of the Cyclops, the Shamir and Other Legends of Origin in Benjamin of Tudela’s Book of Travels
by Nimrod Baratz
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1287; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101287 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1204
Abstract
This paper examines legends on the origins (aetiologies) of places and placenames in Benjamin of Tudela’s travel account. Origin stories are prevalent in medieval travelogues, but Hebrew travel accounts employ a unique form that is embedded in placenames. Midrash Shem (מדרש שם), as [...] Read more.
This paper examines legends on the origins (aetiologies) of places and placenames in Benjamin of Tudela’s travel account. Origin stories are prevalent in medieval travelogues, but Hebrew travel accounts employ a unique form that is embedded in placenames. Midrash Shem (מדרש שם), as this form is known in Jewish tradition, is the homiletical interpretation of names, typically characterized in some measure by wordplay. I suggest that these legends and placenames serve Hebrew travel literature both as an evidential tool and as an artistic means of expression, contributing to the construction of “known” and “foreign” lands and peoples, and consequently to the formulation of group identities. En route to the foreign and unknown, yet “own”, holy Eretz Yisrael, Benjamin of Tudela encounters Jewish communities and records a variety of aetiologies throughout the Middle East. In retelling the origins of the travelled landscape, he transmits local mythical, theological and historical content as well as particular Jewish-diasporic socio-political realities. Diversely told origins of Roman architecture, scattered across most of Benjamin’s account, show how these local traditions varied. Some aetiologies fuse traditional with foreign content to affirm a sense of belonging under foreign rule, while others actively undermine established non-Jewish narratives or even oppose competing Jewish narratives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)
17 pages, 285 KiB  
Article
Storying Anthropocene Waters: Advocacy through Resacralization in Postcolonial River Narratives of the Indian Subcontinent
by Ashwini Hegde and Swarnalatha Rangarajan
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1222; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101222 - 8 Oct 2024
Viewed by 2421
Abstract
Against the background of contemporary debates about the Anthropocene and the attendant danger of global warming and climate change, which is causally linked to the unchecked exploitation of the earth by humans, narratives which embody an earth-centric scientia sacra become tools of advocacy [...] Read more.
Against the background of contemporary debates about the Anthropocene and the attendant danger of global warming and climate change, which is causally linked to the unchecked exploitation of the earth by humans, narratives which embody an earth-centric scientia sacra become tools of advocacy for the ‘resacralization’ of the earth. This paper explores three South Asian river narratives that offer a blueprint for mindfully inhabiting the earth under the shadow of the Anthropocene. Calling for a participatory relationship with the holiness of water, they challenge the construction of water in a rapidly globalizing, uneven society shaped by a colonial hydrology in which the ecological relationship between land and water is out of balance. Drawing attention to the multiple ways in which the human and non-human world are enmeshed in the Anthropocene, these narratives engage with environmental justice concerns and challenge the hierarchy or perspectives and worldviews regarding accepted notions of subalternity. These texts construct a triptych suggesting an embedded ecotheology of the material and the spiritual, thereby sensitising the reader to the endangered waterscapes of the Anthropocene and also to the promise of the Symbiocene through an awareness of the fluid relational field that we share with the greater-than-human world. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Postcolonial Literature and Ecotheology)
20 pages, 364 KiB  
Article
Impact of October 7 Attack and 2024 War in Gaza on Catholic–Jewish Relations
by Magdalena Dziaczkowska
Religions 2024, 15(10), 1180; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101180 - 27 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3599
Abstract
The 2023/2024 war in Gaza is testing Catholic–Jewish relations. It uncovers three layers of tension in the Church’s relationship with the Jewish people and the State of Israel: First, the differences in the Catholic historical interpretation of the Hamas attack and the war [...] Read more.
The 2023/2024 war in Gaza is testing Catholic–Jewish relations. It uncovers three layers of tension in the Church’s relationship with the Jewish people and the State of Israel: First, the differences in the Catholic historical interpretation of the Hamas attack and the war in Gaza in respect to the Jewish one. Second, a theological tension between Catholic teachings on Jews and Judaism and the concept of universal fraternity—how unique is the relationship with the Jewish people compared to all of humanity? Third, a tension between supporting Christians in the Holy Land and their political aspirations and maintaining positive relations with the State of Israel while avoiding a theological stance on Zionism. These tensions lead to intra-Catholic and ecumenical challenges in the theology of Jews, Judaism, and the Land of Israel, particularly in discussions on antisemitism, anti-Judaism, universal fraternity, and violence. This study relies on analyzing relevant press articles and statements from Catholic hierarchs and Jewish leaders, contextualizing them with recent developments in the Catholic theology of war and violence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Catholicism)
18 pages, 271 KiB  
Article
The Holy Land of Saints: The Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the Life Story of St. Marie Alphonsine
by Maayan Karen Raveh
Religions 2024, 15(8), 919; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080919 - 29 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1316
Abstract
Utilizing the lens of new historicism, this study examines how hagiographers Stolz, Duvignau, and Khoury, from the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, have constructed and modified the narrative identity of St. Marie Alphonsine through different periods—1936, 1989, and 2012–2015. This approach illuminates the complex [...] Read more.
Utilizing the lens of new historicism, this study examines how hagiographers Stolz, Duvignau, and Khoury, from the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, have constructed and modified the narrative identity of St. Marie Alphonsine through different periods—1936, 1989, and 2012–2015. This approach illuminates the complex relationship between religious storytelling, cultural identity formation, and perceptions of “otherness”. The chronological dissection of St. Marie Alphonsine’s portrayal uncovers the hagiographers’ efforts to recalibrate her image in response to the changing cultural, spiritual, and communal demands within the Patriarchate’s jurisdiction and among the faithful. Highlighting the hagiographers’ instrumental role on behalf of the Patriarchate in molding religious and cultural discourses, the article explores the profound impact of saintly veneration on shaping the religious identity and cultural narratives of the Catholic community in the Holy Land. It underscores the essential function of the Patriarchate in steering the Catholic community through the complexities of the evolving socio-religious landscape. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)
20 pages, 22897 KiB  
Article
A Re-Examination of the Sources of Inspiration of Ethiopian Concentric Prayer Houses: Tracing an Architectural Concept from the Roman and Byzantine East to Islamic and Crusader Jerusalem to Solomonic Ethiopia
by Bar Kribus
Religions 2024, 15(6), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060657 - 27 May 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2303
Abstract
During the first millennium of Christian presence in Ethiopia (from the fourth century), church architecture was first in accordance with, and later partially based on, the basilica plan. Circa the early sixteenth century, a new and unique church plan appeared, circular, concentric, and [...] Read more.
During the first millennium of Christian presence in Ethiopia (from the fourth century), church architecture was first in accordance with, and later partially based on, the basilica plan. Circa the early sixteenth century, a new and unique church plan appeared, circular, concentric, and with a square sanctuary, and became the dominant church plan in the northwestern Ethiopian Highlands. This church plan has been referred to in scholarship as an innovation, and its sources of inspiration have not yet been definitively established. In this article, I will argue that this plan is a culmination of a process with roots in the Late Antique and Medieval Holy Land, by which the concentric prayer house plan came to be associated with the Jerusalem Temple. This process transcended religious boundaries and is expressed in the religious architecture of three monotheistic religious traditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Public Space and Society)
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18 pages, 381 KiB  
Article
Bridging the Chasm in the Holy Lands: The Antithesis of Islamic Law to Warfare in the Middle East
by Javad Fakhkhar Toosi
Religions 2024, 15(6), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060649 - 24 May 2024
Viewed by 1769
Abstract
The present article scrutinizes the intricacies surrounding defensive warfare aimed at reclaiming territories perceived by Muslims as under non-Muslim occupation through the lens of the four Sunni schools and Twelver Shia perspectives. In Shia jurisprudence, in the absence of the twelfth Imam, the [...] Read more.
The present article scrutinizes the intricacies surrounding defensive warfare aimed at reclaiming territories perceived by Muslims as under non-Muslim occupation through the lens of the four Sunni schools and Twelver Shia perspectives. In Shia jurisprudence, in the absence of the twelfth Imam, the concept of defensive war does not extend to reclaiming Islamic territories per se; rather, Muslims are not sanctioned to engage in warfare solely for territorial defense. Instead, the imperative for Muslim involvement in armed conflict arises only when the fundamental tenets of Islam face jeopardy. According to Shia’s legal interpretation, jeopardizing the core principles of Islam implies a scenario where the erasure of Prophet Muhammad’s legacy and the utter annihilation of Sharia law are imminent. Such a predicament is not contingent upon the occupation of Islamic lands. However, Sunni jurisprudence posits a prerequisite for Muslims to engage in warfare, even in defense, necessitating a certainty of prevailing in the conflict. Consequently, given the contemporary milieu, wherein the requisite conditions for assured victory remain unattainable and are likely unattainable, defensive warfare for territorial reclamation is deemed impermissible. The findings of this inquiry propose an Islamic legal framework that advocates abstention from resorting to warfare concerning the mentioned territories in current circumstances, absolving Muslims of any obligation in this regard. Closing the avenue of armed conflict thereby paves the way for alternative avenues such as negotiation, reconciliation, and peace-building. It underscores Islam’s reverence for human life, prioritizing it over territorial concerns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Islam and the West)
18 pages, 1087 KiB  
Article
Pure or Noble Materials for Jewish Ritual Vessels: Passover Meal and the First Eucharistic Chalice (Holy Grail)
by Manuel Zarzo
Religions 2024, 15(3), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030321 - 6 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2663
Abstract
Very little is known about the chalice used by Jesus of Nazareth at the Last Supper. The first Christians used a cup of blessing for the Eucharistic celebration (1Cor 10:16), which insinuates that Jesus used a ritual cup. An exegetical study of the [...] Read more.
Very little is known about the chalice used by Jesus of Nazareth at the Last Supper. The first Christians used a cup of blessing for the Eucharistic celebration (1Cor 10:16), which insinuates that Jesus used a ritual cup. An exegetical study of the synoptic gospels reveals that this ritual dinner was celebrated in the home of a wealthy disciple of Jesus, who would have lent him the most valuable cup of blessing owned by the family. Hence, it is unlikely that this cup was made of common and cheap materials, such as ceramic or wood. The only mention of this cup in the early centuries is due to St. John Chrysostom, who states (ca. 395 AD) that it was not made of silver. However, its veracity is not reliable due to the lack of earlier comments. In recent decades, archaeological excavations in the Holy Land have revealed that, at the time of Jesus, the use of vessels carved in limestone was common in Jerusalem for ritual practices in the domestic sphere because they were considered unsusceptible to impurity. This fact suggests that the chalice of the Last Supper might have been a valued cup of carved stone, which is consistent with the use of such bowls in the Hellenistic–Roman period among the aristocratic classes. Full article
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4 pages, 163 KiB  
Editorial
The Crusades from a Historical Perspective: Communication, Culture, and Religion
by Sophia Menache
Religions 2024, 15(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15010067 - 4 Jan 2024
Viewed by 5125
Abstract
The Crusades have attracted scholarly attention ever since Pope Urban II called for the recovery of the Holy Land at the Council of Clermont (27 December 1095) [...] Full article
21 pages, 16273 KiB  
Article
The Non-Invasive Spectroscopic Study of a Parchment Object from the National Central Library of Florence: The Hebrew Scroll
by Giovanni Bartolozzi, Andrea Casini, Lisa Castelli, Costanza Cucci, Francesco Grazzi, Anna Mazzinghi, Irene Pieralli, Chiara Ruberto, Rachel Sarfati, Alessandro Sidoti, Lorenzo Stefani and Marcello Picollo
Heritage 2024, 7(1), 206-224; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage7010011 - 2 Jan 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3529
Abstract
The Hebrew Scroll, catalogued as Magliabekian Manuscript III 43 and belonging to the National Central Library of Florence (BNCF), is a membranous richly decorated scroll, with colorful depictions of sacred sites through the Holy Land to Lebanon along with handwritten texts in Hebrew [...] Read more.
The Hebrew Scroll, catalogued as Magliabekian Manuscript III 43 and belonging to the National Central Library of Florence (BNCF), is a membranous richly decorated scroll, with colorful depictions of sacred sites through the Holy Land to Lebanon along with handwritten texts in Hebrew and notes in Italian. Despite the fact that the manuscript was originally catalogued as an “object of no artistic or scientific value”, recent paleographic studies dated it to the XIV century and highlighted it as the oldest scroll still available, depicting holy places from Egypt to Lebanon. Nevertheless, precise dating, authorship, and the interpretation of its original function are still uncertain. A suite of complementary techniques was used, including photographic documentation in visible (VIS) light in diffuse light, grazing light, and transillumination, luminescence induced by ultraviolet (UV) radiation, imaging spectroscopy (IS), Macro Area X-ray Fluorescence (MA-XRF), and spot analyses such as fiber-optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) in the UV, VIS, and near-infrared (NIR) regions, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) in external reflectance mode (ER), and micro-Raman spectroscopy. The results of the non-invasive diagnostic campaign enabled the identification of several constituting materials (parchment, pigments, binder, and inks). The identified materials were consistent with the proposed dating and geographical manufacturing area of the artefact. Full article
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15 pages, 319 KiB  
Article
Journey or Destination? Rethinking Pilgrimage in the Western Tradition
by Anne E. Bailey
Religions 2023, 14(9), 1157; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091157 - 11 Sep 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5638
Abstract
Pilgrimage is undergoing a revival in western Europe, mainly as newly established or revitalised pilgrim routes, such as the Camino de Santiago in northern Spain. These trails have helped to foster the widespread idea that pilgrimage is essentially a journey: a spiritual or [...] Read more.
Pilgrimage is undergoing a revival in western Europe, mainly as newly established or revitalised pilgrim routes, such as the Camino de Santiago in northern Spain. These trails have helped to foster the widespread idea that pilgrimage is essentially a journey: a spiritual or “meaningful” journey undertaken slowly, and preferably on foot, in the medieval tradition. The purpose of this article is to problematise this journey-oriented understanding of pilgrimage in Christian and post-Christian societies and to suggest that the importance given to the pilgrimage journey by many scholars, and by wider society, is more a product of modern Western values and post-Reformation culture than a reflection of historical and current-day religious practices. Drawing on evidence from a range of contemporary sources, it shows that many medieval pilgrims understood pilgrimage as a destination-based activity as is still the case at numerous Roman Catholic shrines today. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pilgrimage and Religious Mobilization in the World)
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