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Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Mushroom Spawn and Its Effects on Mushroom Growth and Development: A Systematic Review

by Hong Tham Dong, Delwar Akbar, Yujuan Li and Cheng-Yuan Xu

Agronomy 2026, 16(3), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16030391 - 6 Feb 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5002

Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many [...] Read more.

Mushrooms are among the most important indoor-grown horticultural cash crops. Recent increases in consumption are driven by shifts toward healthier diets and a growing vegan population. Mushroom spawn is one of key factors that influence consistency, quality, and the yield of mushrooms. Many studies of mushroom spawn have been published but the performance of mushroom spawn under different conditions has not been summarised. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted to identify the effects of spawn on biological efficiency, and 40 publications were included in this systematic review. Most of the studies were conducted on oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.), and grain spawn was popularly used when studying mushroom. Spawn type and rate were demonstrated to affect mycelium growth, which directly influenced mushroom yield. The use of liquid spawn increased mycelium growth, reduced spawn running time, and enhanced mushroom yield. Most studied cases used spawn rates of 3–5% and the biological yield efficiency (BE) of Pleurotus spp. was varied from 5.18 to 173.38% if using grain spawn. The BEs of Hericicum erinacea and Volvariella volvacea inoculated with grain spawn were lower at 22.3–44.4% and 9.42–15.79%, respectively. Recently developed stick and block spawn types seem to be promising spawn with a BE ranging from 68.65 to 70.94%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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18 pages, 5555 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Novel Glycans in the Mucus Layer of Shark and Skate Skin

by Etty Bachar-Wikstrom, Kristina A. Thomsson, Carina Sihlbom, Lisa Abbo, Haitham Tartor, Sara K. Lindén and Jakob D. Wikstrom

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24(18), 14331; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241814331 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6700

Abstract

The mucus layer covering the skin of fish has several roles, including protection against pathogens and mechanical damage. While the mucus layers of various bony fish species have been investigated, the composition and glycan profiles of shark skin mucus remain relatively unexplored. In [...] Read more.

The mucus layer covering the skin of fish has several roles, including protection against pathogens and mechanical damage. While the mucus layers of various bony fish species have been investigated, the composition and glycan profiles of shark skin mucus remain relatively unexplored. In this pilot study, we aimed to explore the structure and composition of shark skin mucus through histological analysis and glycan profiling. Histological examination of skin samples from Atlantic spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) sharks and chain catsharks (Scyliorhinus retifer) revealed distinct mucin-producing cells and a mucus layer, indicating the presence of a functional mucus layer similar to bony fish mucus albeit thinner. Glycan profiling using liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry unveiled a diverse repertoire of mostly O-glycans in the mucus of the two sharks as well as little skate (Leucoraja erinacea). Elasmobranch glycans differ significantly from bony fish, especially in being more sulfated, and some bear resemblance to human glycans, such as gastric mucin O-glycans and H blood group-type glycans. This study contributes to the concept of shark skin having unique properties and provides a foundation for further research into the functional roles and potential biomedical implications of shark skin mucus glycans. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Biology)

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14 pages, 3164 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calcium-Activated Big-Conductance (BK) Potassium Channels Traffic through Nuclear Envelopes into Kinocilia in Ray Electrosensory Cells

by Abby L. Chen, Ting-Hsuan Wu, Lingfang Shi, William T. Clusin and Peter N. Kao

Cells 2023, 12(17), 2125; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells12172125 - 22 Aug 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2811

Abstract

Electroreception through ampullae of Lorenzini in the little skate, Leucoraja erinacea, involves functional coupling between voltage-activated calcium channels (CaV1.3, cacna1d) and calcium-activated big-conductance potassium (BK) channels (BK, kcnma1). Whole-mount confocal microscopy was used to characterize the pleiotropic expression of BK [...] Read more.

Electroreception through ampullae of Lorenzini in the little skate, Leucoraja erinacea, involves functional coupling between voltage-activated calcium channels (CaV1.3, cacna1d) and calcium-activated big-conductance potassium (BK) channels (BK, kcnma1). Whole-mount confocal microscopy was used to characterize the pleiotropic expression of BK and CaV1.3 in intact ampullae. BK and CaV1.3 are co-expressed in electrosensory cell plasma membranes, nuclear envelopes and kinocilia. Nuclear localization sequences (NLS) were predicted in BK and CaV1.3 by bioinformatic sequence analyses. The BK NLS is bipartite, occurs at an alternative splice site for the mammalian STREX exon and contains sequence targets for post-translational phosphorylation. Nuclear localization of skate BK channels was characterized in heterologously transfected HEK293 cells. Double-point mutations in the bipartite NLS (KR to AA or SVLS to AVLA) independently attenuated BK channel nuclear localization. These findings support the concept that BK partitioning between the electrosensory cell plasma membrane, nucleus and kinocilium may be regulated through a newly identified bipartite NLS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Cell Nuclei: Function, Transport and Receptors)

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14 pages, 1337 KB

Open AccessArticle

Volatiles Induced from Hypolepis punctata (Dennstaedtiaceae) by Herbivores Attract Sclomina erinacea (Hemiptera: Reduviidae): Clear Evidence of Indirect Defense in Fern

by Kerui Huang, Hui Shang, Qiong Zhou, Yun Wang, Hui Shen and Yuehong Yan

Insects 2021, 12(11), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12110978 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4148

Abstract

Plants have evolved various self-defense mechanisms against insect feeding. There are many reports regarding both direct and indirect defense mechanisms in seed-plant. However, only direct defenses on ferns were considered and the indirect defense mechanism has never been reported. In this study, it [...] Read more.

Plants have evolved various self-defense mechanisms against insect feeding. There are many reports regarding both direct and indirect defense mechanisms in seed-plant. However, only direct defenses on ferns were considered and the indirect defense mechanism has never been reported. In this study, it was observed that the fern Hypolepis punctata can attract the assassin bug Sclomina erinacea in the field. We collected and analyzed volatiles from H. punctata healthy individuals and the ones wounded by Bertula hadenalis, using dynamic headspace and GC-MS. We recorded the electroantennogram responses of antennae of S. erinacea to different standards of volatile compounds identified from the GC-MS analysis. We also analyzed the behavior of male and female S. erinacea adults in response to volatiles collected from H. punctata using a Y-tube olfactometer. The results showed that a number of volatile compounds were produced when the fern was damaged by B. hadenalis. Electroantennography and Y-tube olfactometer results showed that some herbivore-induced volatiles and volatiles from undamaged leaves could attract S. erinacea. Our research suggests that H. punctata can attract insect predators by releasing herbivory-induced volatile organic compounds, and for the first time we found ferns may also have indirect defense mechanisms using volatile organic compounds. Full article

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7 pages, 875 KB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Sponges (Porifera: Demospongiae) Recorded at the South Shetland Islands and near the Antarctic Peninsula during the Argentinian Summer Antarctic Expedition in 2012

by Alejandro Ariel Fernández, Nicolás Agustín Lemiña and Laura Schejter

Biol. Life Sci. Forum 2021, 2(1), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/BDEE2021-09470 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2134

Abstract

The Argentinian 2012 Summer Antarctic Expedition took place in the austral summer of 2012. One of its goals was the study of the benthic communities, considering the biodiversity and the distribution of the species around the Antarctic Peninsula and neighbouring islands. Samples were [...] Read more.

The Argentinian 2012 Summer Antarctic Expedition took place in the austral summer of 2012. One of its goals was the study of the benthic communities, considering the biodiversity and the distribution of the species around the Antarctic Peninsula and neighbouring islands. Samples were mainly collected by bottom trawling at eight locations. Sponges were sorted from the total catch, photographed, labelled, and frozen onboard, while identification was carried out using the classical methodology at the Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero (INIDEP, Argentina). In this preliminary study, we provide data on sponges belonging to the Demospongiae Class. A total of 34 samples were collected, and at least 24 morphospecies were identified. The most represented Order was Poecilosclerida with 18 taxa (Isodictya erinacea, I. lankesteri, I. cf. verrucosa, Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata, M. (M.) cf. tridens, Phorbas glaberrimus, P. acantochela, Lissodendoryx (Ectyodoryx) anacantha, L. (E.) ramilobosa, L. (L.) flabellata, Artemisina apollinis, Myxodoryx hanitschi, Clathria (Axosuberites) nidificata, Tedania (Tedaniopsis) charcoti, Iophon unicorne, I. cf. aceratum, Myxilla (M.) mollis, and Kirkpatrickia aff. coulmani), followed by Haplosclerida with 5 taxa (Haliclonissa verrucosa, Haliclona sp., Calyx cf. arcuarius, Microxina charcoti, and Hemigellius cf. pilosus). The most frequently recorded species was Mycale (O.) acerata followed by species of the genera Isodictya and Lissodendoryx. Some of the recorded taxa such as Phorbas glaberrimus, Myxodoryx hanitschi, Phorbas cf. acanthochela, and Raspailia (Hymeraphiopsis) hentscheli have only scarce records in this region. The results of this study greatly contribute to the knowledge of the distribution and biodiversity of Antarctic sponges, a very important component of the benthic communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 1st International Electronic Conference on Biological Diversity, Ecology and Evolution)

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29 pages, 59204 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrative Taxonomy of the Spinous Assassin Bug Genus Sclomina (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) Reveals Three Cryptic Species Based on DNA Barcoding and Morphological Evidence

by Ping Zhao, Zhenyong Du, Qian Zhao, Donghai Li, Xiaolan Shao, Hu Li and Wanzhi Cai

Insects 2021, 12(3), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12030251 - 16 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5568

Abstract

Sclomina Stål, 1861 (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) is endemic to China and Vietnam, with only two species, Sclomina erinacea Stål, 1861 and Sclomina guangxiensis Ren, 2001, characterized by spinous body and dentate abdominal connexivum. However, due to variable morphological characteristics, Sclomina erinacea, which [...] Read more.

Sclomina Stål, 1861 (Heteroptera: Reduviidae: Harpactorinae) is endemic to China and Vietnam, with only two species, Sclomina erinacea Stål, 1861 and Sclomina guangxiensis Ren, 2001, characterized by spinous body and dentate abdominal connexivum. However, due to variable morphological characteristics, Sclomina erinacea, which is widely distributed in South China, is possibly a complex of cryptic species, and Sclomina guangxiensis was suspected to be an extreme group of the S. erinacea cline. In the present study, we conducted species delimitation and phylogenetic analyses based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene sequences of 307 Sclomina specimens collected from 30 sampling localities combined with morphological evidence. The result showed that all samples used in this study were identified as five species: Sclomina guangxiensis is a valid species, and Sclomina erinacea actually includes three cryptic species: Sclomina xingrensis P. Zhao and Cai sp. nov., Sclomina pallens P. Zhao and Cai sp. nov., and Sclomina parva P. Zhao and Cai sp. nov. In this paper, the genus Sclomina is systematically revised, and the morphological characteristics of the five species are compared, described, and photographed in detail. We elucidate the evolutionary history of Sclomina based on results of estimated divergence time. The body shape and coloration (green in nymph and brown in adult) of Sclomina match their environment and mimic the Rubus plants on which they live. The symbiotic relationship between Sclomina and spinous Rubus plants is presented and discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Systematics, Phylogeny and Evolution)

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17 pages, 4979 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Species Can Broaden Myelin Research: Suitability of Little Skate, Leucoraja erinacea

by Wiebke Möbius, Sophie Hümmert, Torben Ruhwedel, Alan Kuzirian and Robert Gould

Life 2021, 11(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/life11020136 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4590

Abstract

Although myelinated nervous systems are shared among 60,000 jawed vertebrates, studies aimed at understanding myelination have focused more and more on mice and zebrafish. To obtain a broader understanding of the myelination process, we examined the little skate, Leucoraja erinacea. The reasons [...] Read more.

Although myelinated nervous systems are shared among 60,000 jawed vertebrates, studies aimed at understanding myelination have focused more and more on mice and zebrafish. To obtain a broader understanding of the myelination process, we examined the little skate, Leucoraja erinacea. The reasons behind initiating studies at this time include: the desire to study a species belonging to an out group of other jawed vertebrates; using a species with embryos accessible throughout development; the availability of genome sequences; and the likelihood that mammalian antibodies recognize homologs in the chosen species. We report that the morphological features of myelination in a skate hatchling, a stage that supports complex behavioral repertoires needed for survival, are highly similar in terms of: appearances of myelinating oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS); the way their levels of myelination conform to axon caliber; and their identity in terms of nodal and paranodal specializations. These features provide a core for further studies to determine: axon–myelinating cell communication; the structures of the proteins and lipids upon which myelinated fibers are formed; the pathways used to transport these molecules to sites of myelin assembly and maintenance; and the gene regulatory networks that control their expressions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Myelin and Oligodendrocyte-Neuron Interactions)

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19 pages, 1309 KB

Open AccessArticle

Music Festival Makes Hedgehogs Move: How Individuals Cope Behaviorally in Response to Human-Induced Stressors

by Wanja Rast, Leon M.F. Barthel and Anne Berger

Animals 2019, 9(7), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9070455 - 18 Jul 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7501

Abstract

Understanding the impact of human activities on wildlife behavior and fitness can improve their sustainability. In a pilot study, we wanted to identify behavioral responses to anthropogenic stress in an urban species during a semi-experimental field study. We equipped eight urban hedgehogs ( [...] Read more.

Understanding the impact of human activities on wildlife behavior and fitness can improve their sustainability. In a pilot study, we wanted to identify behavioral responses to anthropogenic stress in an urban species during a semi-experimental field study. We equipped eight urban hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus; four per sex) with bio-loggers to record their behavior before and during a mega music festival (2 × 19 days) in Treptower Park, Berlin. We used GPS (Global Positioning System) to monitor spatial behavior, VHF (Very High Frequency)-loggers to quantify daily nest utilization, and accelerometers to distinguish between different behaviors at a high resolution and to calculate daily disturbance (using Degrees of Functional Coupling). The hedgehogs showed clear behavioral differences between the pre-festival and festival phases. We found evidence supporting highly individual strategies, varying between spatial and temporal evasion of the disturbance. Averaging the responses of the individual animals or only examining one behavioral parameter masked these potentially different individual coping strategies. Using a meaningful combination of different minimal-invasive bio-logger types, we were able to show high inter-individual behavioral variance of urban hedgehogs in response to an anthropogenic disturbance, which might be a precondition to persist successfully in urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Behaviour and Management of Urban Wildlife)

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