Search Results (28)

Although particulate matter (PM) pollution from vehicles’ exhaust has decreased significantly over the years, the contribution from non-exhaust sources (brakes, tyres) has remained at the same levels. In the European Union (EU), Euro 7 regulation introduced PM limits for vehicles’ brake systems. Regenerative braking, i.e., recuperation of the deceleration kinetic and potential energy to the vehicle battery, is one of the strategies to reduce the brake emission levels and improve vehicle efficiency. According to the regulation, the shares of friction and regenerative braking can be determined with actual testing of the vehicle on a chassis dynamometer. In this study we tested the regenerative capabilities of a plug-in hybrid vehicle, both in the laboratory and on the road, under different protocols (including both smooth and aggressive braking) and covering a wide range of driving conditions (urban, rural, motorway) over 10,000 km of driving. Good agreement was obtained between laboratory and on-road tests, with the use of the friction brakes being on average 7% and 5.3%, respectively. However, at the same time it was demonstrated that the friction braking share can vary over a wide range (up to around 30%), depending on the driver’s behaviour. Full article

This study analyses the greenhouse gas reduction potential of different end-of-life (EoL) strategies based on a case study of light electric vehicles (LEVs). Using a shared electric moped scooter as a reference, four EoL scenarios are evaluated in a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA). The modelling of the scenarios combines different R-strategies (e.g., recycling, reusing, and repurposing) regarding both the vehicle itself and the battery. German and EU regulations for vehicle and battery disposal are incorporated, as well as EU directives such as the Battery Product Pass. The global warming potential (GWP₁₀₀) of the production and EoL life cycle stages ranges from 644 to 1025 kg CO₂ eq among the four analysed scenarios. Landfill treatment led to the highest GWP₁₀₀, with 1.47 times higher emissions than those of the base scenario (status quo treatment following EU directives), while increasing component reuse and repurposing the battery cells achieved GWP₁₀₀ reductions of 2.8% and 7.8%, respectively. Overall, the importance of implementing sustainable EoL strategies for LEVs is apparent. To achieve this, a product design that facilitates EoL material and component separation is essential as well as the development of political and economic frameworks. This paper promotes enhancing the circularity of LEVs by combining the LCA of EoL strategies with eco-design considerations. Full article

Since 1 January 2024, newly produced heavy-duty trailers are subject to the assessment of their performance regarding CO₂ and fuel consumption according to Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1362. The method is based on the already established approach for the CO₂ and energy consumption evaluation of trucks and buses, i.e., applying a combination of component testing and vehicle simulation using the software VECTO (Vehicle Energy Consumption calculation TOol). For the evaluation of trailers, generic conventional towing vehicles in combination with the specific CO₂ and fuel consumption-relevant properties of the trailer, such as mass, aerodynamics, rolling resistance etc., are simulated in the “VECTO Trailer” software. The corresponding results are used in the European HDV CO₂ standards with which manufacturers must comply to avoid penalty payments (2030: −10% for semitrailers and −7.5% for trailers compared with the baseline year 2025). Methodology and legislation are currently being extended to also cover the effects of electrified trailers (trailers with an electrified axle and/or electrically supplied auxiliaries) on CO₂, electrical energy consumption, and electric range extension (special use case in combination with a battery-electric towing vehicle). This publication gives an overview of the developed regulatory framework and methods to be implemented in a future extension of VECTO Trailer as well as a comparison of different e-trailer configurations and usage scenarios regarding their impact on CO₂, energy consumption, and electric range by applying the developed methods in a preliminary potential analysis. Results from this analysis indicate that e-trailers that use small batteries (5–50 kWh) to power electric refrigeration units achieve a CO₂ reduction of 5–10%, depending primarily on battery capacity. In contrast, e-trailers designed for propulsion support with larger batteries (50–500 kWh) and e-axle(s) (50–500 kW) demonstrate a reduction potential of up to 40%, largely determined by battery capacity and e-axle rating. Despite their reduction potential, market acceptance of e-trailers remains uncertain as the higher number of trailers compared with towing vehicles could lead to slow adoption, especially of the more expensive configurations. Full article

The article explores the capacity of zero-emission urban public transport (PT) and proposes a standardised method for calculating it across different PT corridors (bus, tram, metro and urban railway). As the European Union (EU) tightens regulations on emissions, targeting also PT, cities are increasingly shifting to electric and hydrogen-powered vehicles. A significant challenge was the lack of a unified methodology to calculate the capacity of zero-emission vehicles, e.g., battery-powered buses carry fewer passengers than diesel ones due to weight restrictions. The article addresses this gap by creating capacity matrices for various vehicle types based on standardised assumptions. Vehicle capacity is calculated based on seating and standing space, with standing passenger space standardised to 0.2 m²/person (E Level of Service). A detailed rolling stock analysis shows how modern designs and floor layouts impact passenger space. Matrices were developed for each mode of transport, showing the number of transported passengers per hour depending on vehicle type and service frequency. The highest capacity is achieved by metro and urban railway systems (up to 95,000+ passengers/hour/direction), while buses offer the lowest (up to 7800 passengers/hour/direction). The authors recommend standardising calculation methods and integrating matrices into planning tools for urban PT corridors. Full article

The European Union (EU) has put forward a new regulatory framework for batteries through the EU Batteries Regulation (2023/1542), which sets a series of minimum thresholds of recycled materials for electric vehicle (EV) batteries sold on the EU market. Since the EU is the largest market for China’s EV export, compliance with the EU Batteries Regulation is a prerequisite for China’s EV export. To evaluate the feasibility of meeting these regulatory requirements, a future-oriented Chinese EV recycled materials use potential analysis model has been developed, forecasting the maximum proportion of recycled materials in China’s EV batteries from 2020 to 2035. To find out the risk factors, influencing aspects such as battery lifespan, demand, technology development, collection rate, and battery reshoring have been considered. The findings indicate that compared to other metals, the maximum proportion of recycled lithium is the lowest, forecast to be 21.2% in 2031, and increasing to 28.3% by 2035. Conversely, the maximum proportion of recycled graphite is the highest, at 28.9% in 2031 and reaching 41.3% in 2035. These results suggest that Chinese EV batteries could meet the targets set by the EU Batteries Regulation in most scenarios. Moreover, the analysis indicates that battery lifespan and collection rate constitute significant risk factors potentially influencing the recycled material content in Chinese EV batteries, which in turn impacts Chinese EV export to the EU. Finally, policy recommendations are proposed to enhance EV export and to bolster EV battery recycling industry development. Full article

Batteries are central to the global energy system and fundamental elements for energy transition and future mobility. In particular, the growth in electric vehicle (EV) sales is pushing up demand for batteries. Most of the battery demand for EVs today can be met with domestic or regional production in China, while the share of imports remains relatively large in Europe and the United States. Boosting the industrial base for battery production is therefore a key task for the EU. To make its battery supply chains secure, resilient, and sustainable, the EU’s approach consists of improving cooperation among stakeholders, providing the sector with funding, and establishing a comprehensive regulatory framework. In this paper, an accurate review of the state-of-the-art of automotive batteries is provided, including the performance, safety, sustainability, and costs of the different battery technologies. The significant challenges the EU battery sector must face, such as dependencies on third countries and high energy and labor costs, are discussed. An overview of the present European regulation and of future trends is provided. Full article

Heavy goods transportation is responsible for around 27% of CO₂ emissions from road transport in the EU and for 5% of total CO₂ emissions in the EU. The decarbonization of long-distance transport in particular remains a major challenge. The combination of battery electric trucks (BETs) with on-route high-power charging (HPC) offers a promising solution. Planning and setting up the required infrastructure is a critical success factor here. We propose a methodology to evaluate the charging infrastructure needed to support the large-scale introduction of heavy-duty BETs in Germany, considering different levels of electrification, taking the European driving and rest time regulations into account. Our analysis employs MATSim, an activity-based multi-agent transport simulation, to assess potential bottlenecks in the charging infrastructure and to simulate the demand-based distribution of charging stations. The MATSim simulation is combined with an extensive pre-processing of transport-related data and a suitable post-processing. This approach allows for a detailed examination of the required charging infrastructure, considering the impacts of depot charging solutions and the dynamic nature of truck movements and charging needs. The results indicate a significant need to augment HPC with substantial low power overnight charging facilities and highlight the importance of strategic infrastructure development to accommodate the growing demand for chargers for BETs. By simulating various scenarios of electrification, we demonstrate the critical role of demand-oriented infrastructure planning in reducing emissions from the road freight sector until 2030. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable transportation, offering insights into the infrastructure requirements and planning challenges associated with the transition to battery electric heavy-duty vehicles. Full article

NiMH batteries are the most used technology of rechargeable batteries sold directly to consumers. Herein, we study the performance of the most common sizes of portable NiMH batteries (AA, AAA, D, C, and 9V). The performance and durability parameters—capacity, charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles—are measured for these types of batteries, according to the standard IEC 61951-2:2017 NiMH batteries. The purpose of this study is to create a basis for setting minimum performance requirements for the parameters in the European Regulation concerning batteries and waste batteries, EU 2023/1542, Annex III, Part B. Results show that the charging time of 16 h could be reduced to 8 h for verifying the rated capacity. The performance of commercial batteries with regard to charge retention, charge recovery, and endurance in cycles is often found to be 25–30% better than required in the relevant IEC standard. Furthermore, we present a short comparative analysis of an application test (IEC 60086-2:2021 “toy”) for portable NiMH batteries with primary batteries. Such data allow comparing the performance of portable NiMH batteries compared to primary batteries in the application test “toy”. Full article

Taking into account the requirements to reduce the release of harmful emissions into the environment, the EU’s environmental standards when transitioning to the Euro 7 standard in 2025 will actually lead vehicles having to operate without producing emissions in all driving situations. Carmakers believe that the new, much stricter regulations will mark the end of the internal combustion engine era. For example, in 2030, the manufacturer SEAT will cease its activities, leaving behind the Cupra brand, which will be exclusively electric in the future. This trend will apply not only to private vehicles (passenger cars), but also to utility vehicles, which is the subject of our research, namely the spatial tubular frame in the Bogdan ERCV27 garbage truck, presented in the form of a solid model. The peculiarity of the studied model is the installation of a battery block behind the driver’s cabin, causing an additional load to be placed on the spatial frame of the garbage truck, which in terms of its architecture is more like the body of a bus. During the conditions involving various modes of operation of a full-scale Bogdan ERCV27 garbage truck sample, questions about the strength and uniformity of its load-bearing spatial frame inevitably arise, which are decisive, even at the stage of designing and preparing the technical documentation. The main static load mode, which, despite its name, also covers dynamic conditions, was modeled using the appropriate coefficient k_d = 2.0. The maximum stresses on the model during the “bending” mode were 381.13 MPa before structure optimization and 270.5 MPa as a result of the improvement measures. The spatial frame mass was reduced by 4.13%. During the “torsion” mode, the maximum deformation values were 12.1–14.5 mm, which guarantees the normal operation of the aggregates and units of the truck. Full article

With the continuous evolution of international trade, the global market has been steadily expanding while also facing increasing challenges, particularly in relation to the introduction of environmental policies such as carbon barriers. Our research explores how China’s power battery manufacturers can adapt their export strategies to the EU’s carbon barrier policies. Additionally, we examine the roles of government regulations, research institutions, and manufacturers in either facilitating or hindering compliance with carbon reduction objectives. Using evolutionary game theory, we construct models involving government entities, manufacturers, and research institutions to systematically analyze market evolution, strategic interactions, and outcomes among these stakeholders. Our analysis focuses on understanding the competitive dynamics faced by exporting countries under stringent environmental policies and provides strategic insights to guide export strategies. Taking the EU’s carbon barrier policy as a case study, we explore Chinese battery manufacturers’ adaptive strategies and decision-making processes as they respond to shifting market demands and regulatory environments. The findings not only offer valuable insights into exporting countries but also provide policymakers with information on international trade and industrial policy design. Furthermore, we validate our model through numerical simulations and conduct sensitivity analyses on key parameters. The results underscore the importance of governmental adoption of punitive and incentive policies, revealing their substantial impact on stakeholder behavior. Additionally, the study highlights how participants’ pre-cooperation losses and post-cooperation gains influence participation rates and the speed at which stakeholder consensus is reached. By offering a novel approach with which to address carbon barrier challenges, this research contributes valuable perspectives on environmental regulations’ strategic and policy implications in global trade. Full article

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the primary causes behind the current rise in global temperatures and climate change. CO₂, which is present in the atmosphere in significant quantities, is contributing more to the warming effect than other gases that are present at smaller levels. The transportation sector is contributing significantly to the total global CO₂ emissions (21.7%), with road transport accounting for 74%. Switching from gasoline-powered vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) is the most practical way to decarbonize land transportation. We have gathered information on EVs from the USA, China, India, and a few EU members for the current review. The collected data regarding government policies, subsidies, and other rules and laws, the present status of EV technology and performance, market scenarios and future projections of EVs, EV regulations in the regions with the highest penetration rates, consumer perspectives and barriers, and the decarbonization of land transportation were analyzed. The adoption of electric vehicles has advanced significantly in some parts of the world, primarily as a result of government policies that include subsidies, other regulations, and laws that globally lower the cost of acquisition and ownership for owners of electric vehicles (EVs) relative to those of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Favorable government policies have been associated with the success of EV adoption in Norway, China, the United States of America (USA), the European Union (EU), and India. With more advantages than any other country, China is currently the world’s largest EV market. In addition, it has the highest number of EVs in use and the highest manufacturing capacity. Norway leads the world in the percentage of newly registered EVs at over 90%. China is competing with the USA for leadership in manufacturing and technology, especially in the areas of artificial intelligence (AI) and batteries. Favorable perceptions of consumers regarding EVs are vital in increasing the EV adoption rate. In order to achieve the goal of decarbonizing road transportation, we proposed that a number of factors—including government energy policies and regulatory standard development, necessary infrastructure investments and developments, AI incorporation in EVs, innovation in EV and battery technologies, and consumer perspectives in particular—play a crucial role. Full article

In recent years, the global energy sector has seen significant transformation, particularly in Europe, with a notable increase in intermittent renewable energy integration. Italy and the European Union (EU) have been among the leaders in this transition, with renewables playing a substantial role in electricity generation as of the mid-2020s. The adoption of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) has become crucial for enhancing grid efficiency, sustainability, and reliability by addressing intermittent renewable sources. This paper investigates the feasibility and economic viability of batteries in wholesale electricity markets as per EU regulation, focusing on the dynamics of very different markets, namely the Day-Ahead Market (DAM) based on system marginal price and the Cross-Border Intra-day Market (XBID) based on continuous trading. A novel model is proposed to enhance BESS operations, leveraging price arbitrage strategies based on zonal price predictions, levelized cost of storage (LCOS), and uncertain bid acceptance in continuous trading. Machine learning and deep learning techniques are applied for price forecasting and bid acceptance prediction, respectively. This study finds that data-driven techniques outperform reference models in price forecasting and bid acceptance prediction (+7–14% accuracy). Regarding market dynamics, this study reveals higher competitiveness in the continuous market compared to the DAM, particularly with increased risk factors in bids leading to higher profits. This research provides insights into compatibility between continuous markets and BESS, showing substantial improvements in economic profitability and the correlation between risk and profits in the bidding strategy (EUR +9 M yearly revenues are obtained with strategic behavior that reduces awarded energy by 60%). Full article

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries are becoming a growing trend as a consequence of EU regulations and their advantages over nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) batteries. The use of LFP batteries is expected to increase considerably globally, creating an enormous waste problem. Battery recycling is emphasized in the EU’s battery laws, especially for lithium. Proper recycling of LFP batteries reduces environmental damage and supports the circular economy. Graphite and lithium are acknowledged as essential raw minerals. Recycling LFP batteries can be accomplished using pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques. This study investigates the impact of thermal pre-treatments on flotation and leaching to produce an efficient recycling process. Full article

Life cycle strategies for traction batteries, such as remanufacturing, reuse, and recycling of retired automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), have received growing attention, as large volumes of LIBs will retire in the near future and the demand for LIBs continues to grow. At the same time, the relevance of the sustainability of a battery system over its entire life cycle is increasing as factors such as the EU Battery Regulation provide greater market and product transparency. As a result, research and industry require forecasts in order to assess the future market situation and to make well-founded decisions. Therefore, this paper provides forecasts of the return volumes of battery systems from BEVs and PHEVs up to 2035. Additionally, a representative European battery pack for PHEVs and BEVs was evaluated for each year since 2013, based on the ten vehicles with the largest market share in each year until 2021. In addition, the battery return streams are divided into three different 3R strategies based on expert interviews in order to evaluate the upcoming workload in these areas. The term “3R” refers to the sum of the currently existing pathways around reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling. In 2030, about 38.8 GWh will return and enter the recycling process annually. For battery reuse, about 13 GWh will return every year from 2030 onwards, ready to be used in stationary storage for energy transition. Compared to this, battery remanufacturing is expected to be supplied with a slightly lower volume of approximately 11 GWh per year. Full article

The electrification of an aircraft’s propulsive system is identified as a potential solution towards a lower carbon footprint in the aviation industry. One of the effects of increased electrification is the generation of a large amount of waste heat that needs to be removed. As high-power systems must be cooled to avoid performance deterioration such as battery thermal runaway, a suitable thermal management system is required to regulate the temperature of the powertrain components. With this in mind, the main objective of this research is to identify promising heat transfer technologies to be integrated into a thermal management system (TMS) such that power, mass, and drag can be minimised for a parallel hybrid–electric regional aircraft in the context of the EU-funded FutPrInt50 project. Five different TMS architectures are modelled using the Matlab/Simulink environment based on thermodynamic principles, heat transfer fundamentals, and fluid flow equations. The systems are a combination of a closed-loop liquid cooling integrated with different heat dissipation components, namely ram air heat exchanger, skin heat exchanger, and fuel. Their cooling capacity and overall aircraft performance penalties under different flight conditions are estimated and compared to each other. Then, a parametric study is conducted, followed by a multi-objective optimisation analysis with the aim of minimising the TMS impact. As expected, none of the investigated architectures exhibit an ideal performance across the range of the studied metrics. The research revealed that, while planning the TMS for future hybrid–electric aircraft, alternative architectures will have to be developed and studied in light of the power requirements. Full article