Search Results (216)

Slow pyrolysis of a plastic fraction isolated from municipal waste produced a char, which was then used as a precursor for the synthesis of activated carbon. The process involved thermal conversion at 800 °C and chemical activation using K₂CO₃. The resulting activated carbon was used to remove Pb(II), Cd(II), and Co(II) from aqueous solutions. Physicochemical, structural, and granulometric characterizations of the resulting adsorbent were performed. The obtained material had a specific surface area of 562 m²/g, a total pore volume of 0.328 cm³/g, and a micropore volume of 0.146 cm³/g. To determine the optimal adsorption conditions, the Box–Behnken experiment planning method was used, assuming solution pH, adsorbent mass, and initial metal ion concentration as independent variables, and the percentage removal of the contaminant as the response. Studies on sorption isotherms were conducted using a static method in a periodic system for initial metal ion concentrations ranging from 10 to 250 mg/dm³. The effect of temperature on the adsorption process was analyzed, and the kinetics sorption was investigated. Several adsorption isotherm models were used to describe the adsorption equilibrium. The maximum sorption capacity was 35.5 mg/g for Pb(II), 14.7 mg/g for Cd(II), and 11.6 mg/g for Co(II). The obtained results indicate that the plastic waste based adsorbent exhibits favorable sorption properties for the tested heavy metal ions and may be useful in water and wastewater treatment processes. Full article

Municipal solid waste landfill leachate represents one of the most environmentally challenging liquid effluents in modern waste management; however, its high nitrogen and phosphorus content renders it a potentially valuable nutrient source for microalgal phycoremediation. Here, Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp. were cultivated for 15 days in CHU-10 standard medium and 50% (v/v) municipal landfill leachate from Nauta, Peru, and characterized across 33 biochemical variables, 14 physicochemical parameters, and 32 metal ions and trace elements. A sequential competitive multivariate pipeline comprising principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA), and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was applied to both the biochemical and bioremediation datasets. Leachate supplementation increased peak biomass density by 26.6–28.3% and elevated total protein by 56.9% in Chlorella sp. and 73.4% in Scenedesmus sp., while reducing total lipids by 37–46% and suppressing polyunsaturated fatty acid production. Both species achieved net biological removal efficiencies (NBRE) exceeding 86% for ammonium and ammonia; toxic elements, including Cd (~96%), Al (~92%), As (~90%), and Pb (~90%), were removed at higher NBRE than macro- and micronutrient categories. LDA achieved 100% leave-one-out cross-validation accuracy for species classification from both physicochemical and 32-element NBRE profiles. These findings indicate two complementary valorization directions, contingent on further biomass safety verification: leachate-grown Scenedesmus sp. shows a favorable combination of protein enrichment and nutrient removal for single-cell protein production integrated with bioremediation, while Chlorella sp. in standard medium shows a more favorable fatty acid profile for nutraceutical applications. Because leachate-grown biomass also accumulates inorganic and trace-element constituents from the medium, its suitability for protein or nutraceutical use requires direct heavy-metal characterization of the harvested biomass, independent of the demonstrated removal efficiency from the liquid phase. Full article

Heavy metal wastewater, characterized by high toxicity, poor biodegradability, and strong bioaccumulation potential, poses a serious threat to the ecological environment and human health. Conventional chemical treatment methods are costly and prone to secondary pollution. In contrast, using solid waste to prepare environmental functional materials for “waste control by waste” has emerged as a research hotspot in the field of synergistic water pollution control and resource recovery. This review systematically consolidates the sources, physicochemical properties, and compositional characteristics of typical industrial solid wastes—including red mud, electroplating sludge, fly ash, copper slag, and blast furnace slag—and elucidates how compositional variations constrain the selection of functionalization pathways. On this basis, key preparation techniques, namely hydrothermal synthesis, surface modification/impregnation, thermal treatment, geopolymerization, and sol–gel/polymerization, are critically reviewed and compared in terms of product structural regulation, process complexity, and engineering scale-up potential. Subsequently, the adsorption performance of the resultant materials toward heavy metals such as Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Cr(VI), As(VI), Cd²⁺, Ni^2+, and Zn²⁺ is discussed, with particular emphasis on the pronounced effects of pH, temperature, initial concentration, coexisting ions, and adsorbent dosage on adsorption capacity. Notably, Pb²⁺ exhibits the highest adsorption capacity, whereas the removal of Cr(VI) and As(V) is strongly governed by the positive charge density and reduction efficiency of the material surface. In quinary heavy metal competitive systems, marked differences in the affinity of adsorption sites toward distinct metal ions have been observed. Mechanistic analysis identifies ion exchange, surface complexation, electrostatic attraction, and redox reactions as the predominant removal pathways. This review further incorporates engineering-oriented assessments, including multi-component competitive adsorption, fixed-bed column operation, and regeneration stability, and identifies the critical bottlenecks currently impeding the transition from laboratory-scale research to practical implementation—namely, performance instability arising from feedstock variability, attenuation of adsorption capacity during prolonged operation (with a 10–40% decline over 5–10 cycles), underdeveloped regeneration and recovery routes, and a systemic deficiency in techno-economic analysis and life-cycle assessment data. Finally, future research directions are proposed, emphasizing the development of low-carbon and energy-efficient preparation technologies, the promotion of synergistic valorization of multiple solid wastes alongside critical metal recovery, and the advancement of this field toward engineering applications through artificial intelligence-assisted design and life-cycle assessment, thereby furnishing theoretical references and technical support for the integrated management of industrial solid waste resource utilization and heavy metal wastewater treatment. Full article

Finding cost-effective and eco-friendly ways to remove toxic heavy metals from wastewater remains a critical challenge for industrial sustainability. This study presents a comparative performance matrix of coal fly ash (CFA) and bone charcoal (BC) for the high-capacity remediation of Cd(II) and Pb(II) ions. This work establishes a direct cross-matrix comparison between a heterogeneous aluminosilicate phase (CFA) and a uniform calcium-phosphate structure (BC) under identical systemic boundaries. SEM/EDS, FT-IR, and complementary TG/DTG/DTA screenings confirmed that distinct material-specific functional frameworks drive a predominantly physical mechanism governed by electrostatic and van der Waals interactions. Equilibrium data fitted the non-linear Langmuir model well (R² > 0.99 at 20 °C). BC proved to be significantly more effective, achieving maximum sorption capacities (q_max of 397.55 mg/g for Pb(II) and 325.09 mg/g for Cd(II), outperforming CFA (118.22 and 105.59 mg/g, respectively). Sorption capacities decreased with temperature up to 80 °C, confirming the exothermic nature of the process, which was further substantiated by negative enthalpy values (∆H⁰ = −7.27 to −14.19 kJ/mol). Thermodynamic parameters indicated a spontaneous process (∆G⁰ < 0, −9.55 to −19.33 kJ/mol) with positive entropy changes (∆S⁰ = 5.82 to 39.09 J/(mol·K)). Adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order model, with intraparticle diffusion acting as a key rate-limiting step. Regardless of the adsorbent, Pb(II) ions were immobilized faster and more efficiently than Cd(II) due to a smaller hydration radius. In conclusion, both industrial by-products represent promising, sustainable options for heavy metal wastewater treatment, with BC demonstrating superior performance. Full article

Waste aluminum dust generated from aluminum refining and machining processes contains high fractions of Al₂O₃ and SiO₂, making it a potential secondary aluminosilicate resource for zeolite synthesis. In this study, waste aluminum dust was converted into functional zeolite materials through dry fusion purification, NaOH-assisted hydrothermal synthesis, acid purification, Si/Al ratio control, and cation-exchange modification. The raw dust was subjected to dry fusion at 1600 °C under an Ar atmosphere to remove metallic impurities and obtain an aluminosilicate precursor. Na-type zeolite was then synthesized using 50 wt.% NaOH solution at 90 °C for 24 h. The as-synthesized Na-type zeolite exhibited an estimated chemical purity of 97.501 wt.% based on measured residual impurities, with Mg, Ca, K, and Ti remaining as major impurities. HCl leaching at 0.25 M for 24 h increased the estimated chemical purity based on measured residual impurities to 98.469 wt.% while retaining the major zeolitic diffraction features. The Si/Al ratio was further controlled using water glass, and the maximum Si/Al ratio of 1.77 was obtained at a Na-type zeolite-to-water-glass mass ratio of 1:2 after reaction at 90 °C for 6 h. The purified and composition-controlled zeolite was subsequently modified with Mg²⁺ and K⁺ ions to prepare Mg-modified and K-modified zeolites. Under fixed batch conditions using a relatively high zeolite dosage and a single initial concentration, Mg-modified zeolite reduced Pb, Hg, Cr(VI), and Cd concentrations from 100 ppm to 0.004, 0.00059, 0.018, and 0.004 ppm, respectively, while K-modified zeolite reduced the total hardness of synthetic hard water from 308.3 to 40.13 ppm as CaCO₃. These results should be interpreted as preliminary batch-performance results under the tested conditions rather than as maximum adsorption capacities or a complete adsorption-mechanism evaluation. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of valorizing waste aluminum dust into purified and cation-modified zeolite materials for potential water-treatment applications. Further adsorption isotherm, kinetic, dosage-dependent, BET surface area, pore-volume, pore-size distribution, and quantitative phase analyses are required to evaluate adsorption capacity, adsorption mechanism, true zeolite phase purity, and framework–performance relationships. Full article

Heavy metals (HMs) such as copper (Cu), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and zinc (Zn) from industrial activities are discharged into nearby water resources after treatment. In the present study, the potential of utilizing chemically activated carbon derived from water hyacinths as a sustainable and low-cost adsorbent for heavy metal removal from industrial wastewater from the Nakawa industrial area, Uganda was investigated. The measured physicochemical parameters of wastewater (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, chlorides and total hardness) varied significantly among the three sampled sites (p < 0.05), except for pH. Similarly, the concentration of the HMs in the samples (0.54 ± 0.04 mg L⁻¹ for Cr to 93.54 ± 0.07 mg L⁻¹ for Pb) varied significantly between sites (p < 0.05), exceeding the maximum permissible limits of Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu and Zn specified in the National Environment Standards for Discharge of Effluent into Water or Land. The water hyacinth biomass was activated using eggshell powder and phosphoric acid, followed by thermal treatment. Characterization using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy confirmed that there was improvement in its surface functionality and porosity post activation. Batch adsorption experiments indicated that optimal removal of the HMs was achieved at pH 4–5, contact time of 90 min, and 1.0 g of adsorbent. Maximum adsorption capacities of Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr and Zn were in the range of 1.04–8.36 mg g⁻¹. Under the optimized conditions, the eggshell-activated carbon derived from water hyacinths had removal efficiencies of 91.2 ± 9.1% (range: 71.3–100%). Adsorption occurred through both monolayer and multilayer coverage, as indicated by the experimental data which fitted well to the Freundlich isotherm (Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺ and Cu²⁺ ions) and Langmuir isotherm model (Cr³⁺ ions). These results support the potential of water hyacinth-derived activated carbon as an ecofriendly alternative for treating low concentrations of these HMs in industrial wastewater. Full article

Lead (Pb²⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺) are among the most hazardous heavy metal pollutants in wastewater owing to their high toxicity, environmental persistence, and detrimental impacts on human health and aquatic ecosystems. In this study, a novel ternary magnetic composite, SnFe₂O₄/activated carbon/polypyrrole (SnFe₂O₄/AC/PPy), was effectively synthesized and tested as an effective adsorbent in the removal of Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ from aqueous water. The composite was prepared by depositing spinel SnFe₂O₄ nanoparticles on activated carbon, followed by in situ polymerization of polypyrrole to enhance surface functionality and adsorption affinity. The successful fabrication of the porous SnFe₂O₄/AC/PPy hybrid composite was confirmed through FTIR, XRD, SEM–EDS, BET, XPS, and VSM characterization. The composite demonstrated a relatively high surface area (352.3 m²/g) and adequate magnetic responsiveness (12.33 emu/g), ensuring facile magnetic separation following wastewater treatment. Batch adsorption experiments showed great removal efficiency of 95.02 and 92.48% for Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ ions, respectively, at optimum conditions. The adsorption equilibrium data followed the Langmuir isotherm model with maximum adsorption capacities of 187.07 mg/g for Pb²⁺ and 96.45 mg/g for Cd²⁺ ions, which were attributed to monolayer adsorption on homogenous active sites. The kinetic and isothermal model indicated that the adsorption process was controlled by the combination of physical and chemical interactions. Thermodynamic parameters showed negative Gibbs free energy and enthalpy changes (ΔH° = −49.74 kJ/mol for Pb²⁺ and −38.82 kJ/mol for Cd²⁺ ions), confirming the spontaneous and exothermic nature of adsorption. Furthermore, the increasingly negative ΔG° values at lower temperatures indicated that the adsorption was thermodynamically more favorable under cooler conditions. According to the regeneration studies, the composite maintained a high removal efficiency after five consecutive cycles. In general, SnFe₂O₄/AC/PPy composite has good potential as a stable, reusable, and high-performance adsorbent to treat heavy metal wastewater. Full article

The P(IA-HBP-AA-AM)/MMT composite was successfully synthesized via in situ polymerization and characterized using FTIR, XRD, TGA, and other techniques. The material was then applied as an adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from simulated mining-contaminated water (prepared based on the typical ionic composition of real mining wastewater). Static adsorption experiments revealed that P(IA-HBP-AA-AM)/MMT composite could efficiently remove Pb(II) from contaminated water, and the adsorption behavior was well described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model and the Langmuir isotherm model. Thermodynamic analysis indicated that the adsorption of Pb(II) onto the P(IA-HBP-AA-AM)/MMT composite was an endothermic and spontaneous process. At pH = 4.5 and T = 45 °C, the maximum adsorption capacity obtained from model fitting was 249.38 mg/g. The material exhibited strong selectivity for Pb(II), even in the presence of competing metal ions such as Cd(II), Zn(II), Al(III), Fe(III), K(I), and Na(I). Moreover, after five adsorption–desorption cycles, it still retained approximately 90% of its Pb(II) removal efficiency. Furthermore, dynamic adsorption experiments showed that the saturation adsorption capacity of Pb(II) reached 178.7 mg/g, with a column utilization efficiency of approximately 41%. These findings demonstrate the promising potential of P(IA-HBP-AA-AM)/MMT composite for the removal of Pb(II) from mining-contaminated water. Full article

With the rapid intensification of industrial and agricultural activities, water contamination by heavy metal ions has emerged as a critical global challenge, gravely imperiling ecosystem stability and public health. Among the various remediation technologies, adsorption has been widely adopted due to its high efficiency, low-cost water treatment, and simplicity of operation. However, conventional inorganic or synthetic adsorbents often exhibit poor degradability and pose a risk of secondary contamination, substantially limiting their sustainable application. Consequently, the development of environmentally benign and renewable adsorbent materials has become a central research focus in this field. Recently, cellulose-based composite hydrogels, derived from renewable resources and characterized by excellent eco-friendliness and highly tunable three-dimensional porous structures, have attracted considerable attention as promising green adsorption materials. These hydrogels demonstrate outstanding performance in the efficient sequestration of heavy metal contaminants from aqueous environments. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in cellulose-based composite hydrogels for heavy metal removal, to elucidate the structure–performance relationships linking material fabrication strategies, structural modulation, and adsorption efficiency. First, we outline the principal construction approaches, including physical crosslinking, chemical modification, and supramolecular self-assembly, and comprehensively analyze how different synthesis routes regulate pore architecture, mechanical properties, and the distribution of surface functional groups. Second, the underlying adsorption mechanisms, primarily coordination complexation, electrostatic interactions, and ion exchange, are discussed in detail. Finally, recent studies on the adsorption of cationic heavy metals (e.g., Pb(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II)) and anionic oxyanions (e.g., As(III) and Cr(VI)) are critically reviewed, with particular emphasis on the relationships between selective adsorption performance, material design principles, and specific recognition mechanisms. Overall, this review provides a theoretical foundation and practical guidance for the design and development of next-generation water treatment materials with high adsorption capacity, excellent selectivity, non-toxicity, and strong environmental compatibility, followed by future research recommendations. Full article

The increasing release of non-biodegradable heavy metals, particularly lead (Pb²⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺), poses severe risks to ecosystems and human health. Herein, we present a sustainable “treating-waste-with-waste” strategy that simultaneously addresses heavy-metal contamination in water and the accumulation of expanded perlite waste. Expanded perlite waste was directly converted into a high-purity, low-silica CHA zeolite via a simple, one-pot, template-free hydrothermal conversion. The resulting sodium-exchanged material (Na-CHA-p) demonstrated excellent Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ removal performance, featuring ultrafast adsorption kinetics (reaching equilibrium within 5 min for both ions), high adsorption capacities (555.6 mg·g⁻¹ for Pb²⁺ and 211.0 mg·g⁻¹ for Cd²⁺), and superior selectivity. This study demonstrates an efficient pathway for the high-value utilization of perlite waste and highlights the strong potential of waste-derived CHA zeolites as advanced adsorbents for heavy-metal wastewater remediation. Full article

Zeolite P was synthesized by hydrothermal treatment of coal fly ash and applied to the individual removal of six heavy metals (Pb²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, Cr³⁺, Hg²⁺, Cd²⁺) from aqueous solutions. Characterization by SEM-EDS, FTIR, BET, XRD, zeta potential, and XPS revealed a BET surface area of 30 m²/g, Si/Al ratio of 1.63, and pH_pzc of 3.2. Batch experiments at the natural solution pH of 3.9 in all cases (C₀ = 10, 100, 200 mg/L; t = 1–60 min) yielded an apparent selectivity sequence at C₀ = 200 mg/L of Hg²⁺ (10.47 mg/g) > Pb²⁺ (9.12) > Ni²⁺ (2.18) > Cr³⁺ (2.05) > Cu²⁺ (1.82) > Cd²⁺ (1.26), where Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ reached near-equilibrium while the remaining metals were still approaching it at t = 60 min. Weber–Morris and Boyd analyses confirmed three sequential diffusion stages with a concentration-dependent shift from film to intraparticle diffusion control through the narrow GIS channels (3.1 × 4.5 Å). Ion exchange was identified as the dominant mechanism based on convergent kinetic, diffusion, XPS, and selectivity–electronegativity evidence (r = +0.76). A leakage-free machine learning framework combining physicochemical descriptors with experimental variables was tested under three cross-validation strategies of increasing stringency. Gradient Boosting achieved R² = 0.979 ± 0.043 (repeated K-Fold) and R² = 0.880 on six completely held-out kinetic curves. An ablation study confirmed that physicochemical descriptors are essential (experimental-only models yielded negative R²). SHAP feature importance rankings were consistent with established ion exchange selectivity theory. This work demonstrates that group-level validation, physics-informed descriptors, and systematic ablation testing are able to identify both the capabilities and the boundaries of small-dataset ML when testing for metal kinetics prediction. Full article

Ion-imprinting technology based on biosorbents via sorption demonstrates potential for the selective removal of metal ions from water and wastewater. This offers both high sorption capacity and selectivity for specific metals. Current research trends are toward the development of sorbents with minimal environmental impact. Among the most rapidly evolving classes of sorbents are those derived from biopolymers, such as chitosan—a natural derivative of chitin that can be readily functionalized. Due to the growing interest in this topic, it is necessary to summarize the current knowledge. In this article, we provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advances in ion-imprinted chitosan-based materials designed for the purification of metal-contaminated aqueous systems. We conduct a bibliographic analysis and describe a variety of chitosan-based materials exhibiting selectivity toward heavy metals, including chromium Cr(III/VI), cobalt Co(II), nickel Ni(II), copper Cu(II), zinc Zn(II), arsenic As(III/V), cadmium Cd(II), mercury Hg(II), and lead Pb(II). Finally, we discuss future prospects and highlight current research gaps, aiming to guide further scientific exploration and innovation in this promising field. Full article

Anthropogenic activities generate waste that negatively impacts the environment, especially water resources, due to the accumulation of heavy metal ions. Several adsorption methods have been developed, including the use of natural materials such as algae and activated clay. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of pH on batch adsorption of heavy metal ions using Nostoc sphaericum hydrocolloid (HA)/activated nanoclay (NR) composites. The NR/HMB-HA and NR/HUT-HA composites were prepared with a 2:8 mass ratio of HA and NR, using types of clay with code HMB and HUT, previously activated with 1 M NaCl and acid treatment. The adsorption capacity was evaluated using batch tests at pH 4.5 and 5.5, analyzing the removal percentage, adsorption kinetics, adsorption isotherms, and regeneration cycles for unimetal and multimetal systems. The composites present a load point close to 5.1. The FTIR analysis showed changes in the intensity of functional groups following adsorption, confirming the interaction with metallic ions. Both composites showed high affinity in multimetallic systems, especially at pH 5.5, with high selectivity for Pb²⁺ (≈99% removal), followed by As, Cd, and Zn, from an initial concentration of 10 ppm for each metal ion. Equilibrium is reached in approximately 90 min, allowing adsorption of up to 69.9% after five regeneration cycles in a multimetal system. The kinetic study showed that multimetal absorption at equilibrium is governed by chemisorption processes in the order Pb > As > Zn > Cd, with q_e values between 0.392 and 0.058 mmol/g and diffusivity from 15.506 × 10¹¹ to 1.692 × 10¹¹ m²/s. Likewise, the isotherms study indicated a favorable process with maximum adsorption (q_max) between 16.696 and 5.223 mmol/g at pH 5.5. Altogether, the developed composites show high potential for the removal of heavy metals in contaminated waters, in addition to their high reuse capacity. Full article

The preparation of highly efficient adsorbents capable of simultaneously removing dyes and heavy metals is of great importance. Crab shell-derived biochar (BC) was successfully modified with magnesium and iron oxides (magnetic MgO@BC) via a simple impregnation–carbonization method. A series of characterizations revealed that magnetic MgO@BC possessed hierarchical porous structure with abundant oxygenated functional groups and good magnetic separability. The results of batch adsorption experiments showed that the actual maximum adsorption capacities of magnetic MgO@BC were 301.06, 1344.11 and 3232.10 mg/g for Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and CR, respectively. In addition, the adsorption of Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺, and CR exhibited minimal influence from pH and coexisting ions, except for Cd²⁺ adsorption, which was significantly affected by divalent cations. For Cd²⁺ and Pb²⁺ adsorption, the Langmuir model provided good fits for the adsorption isotherms, whereas CR adsorption was more suitable for the Freundlich model. The adsorption kinetic fitting results indicate that Cd²⁺ adsorption aligned well with the pseudo-first-order model, while Pb²⁺ and CR fitted better with the pseudo-second-order model. Regeneration tests revealed that after four cycles, Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺ and CR still maintained 85.87%, 52.43%, and 96.09% removal efficiencies, respectively. SEM, FTIR, XRD, and XPS results demonstrated that the mechanism for CR adsorption involved π-π interactions, electrostatic attraction, and hydrogen bonding. The adsorption mechanism of heavy metals was primarily governed by ion exchange, cation-π interactions, surface coordination, and coprecipitation mechanisms, where Pb²⁺ exhibited stronger and more preferential adsorption behavior. Binary adsorption experiments confirmed competitive and synergistic effects depending on pollutant pairs. This study offers a novel perspective on the preparation and mechanism of biochar materials for the efficient and synergistic removal of dyes and heavy metals. Full article

Clean water remains a pressing global challenge and developing membranes that are both efficient and durable is critical. This study combined two polymers, polyethersulfone (PES) and sulfone-modified polysulfone (SPSf), with NiFe-layered double hydroxides (LDHs) to create a new class of multifunctional membranes. The membranes were characterized using FTIR, SEM, water contact angle, and zeta potential. The addition of NiFe-LDH fillers improved the hydrophilicity and surface structure of the membranes and enhanced the separation performance of the resulting membranes. The best-performing membrane (M3, with 2 wt.% NiFe-LDH) delivered pure water flux of about 218 L.m⁻²h⁻¹, which was nearly three times higher than that of the pristine PES/SPSf membrane. Furthermore, M3 removed approximately 92.4% of bovine serum albumin (BSA), attributed to the synergistic combination of size exclusion, electrostatic repulsion, and hydrophilicity. The membrane also showed excellent antifouling properties, maintaining over 65.9% and 71.2% flux recovery after three fouling–cleaning cycles for BSA solution and surface water, respectively. Importantly, the M3 membrane achieved high removal efficiencies for heavy metals, rejecting 91% of Cd²⁺, 93% of Pb²⁺, and 88% of Cu²⁺. These results highlight how the synergy between PES/SPSf and NiFe-LDH can overcome the common challenges of fouling and low metal ion rejection, offering a promising route toward practical and sustainable water treatment solutions. Full article