Search Results (116)

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus with one of the widest global distributions. Since its discovery in Uganda in 1937, it has become a major zoonotic pathogen, and after its introduction into the United States in 1999, it spread rapidly across the Americas, becoming the leading cause of neuroinvasive arboviral disease. Its expansion illustrates a remarkable ecological adaptability, further intensified by climate change. In Latin America and the Caribbean, WNV circulation has been consistently documented in birds, horses, and mosquitoes; however, confirmed human cases remain disproportionately scarce compared with North America and Europe. Reports include sporadic human cases in Brazil (>100 since 2014), Mexico (~13), Argentina (2006–2007), Puerto Rico (2007), Nicaragua, and Haiti, while animal and vector evidence extends to Guatemala, El Salvador, Belize, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Cuba, and Ecuador. This paradox likely reflects structural limitations within regional health systems, including underdiagnosis, restricted diagnostic capacity, and significant surveillance gaps, particularly in contexts where mild febrile syndromes may be misclassified as dengue, Zika, or Chikungunya. The regional risk of emergence is further amplified by climatic variability, ecological change, and intensifying human–wildlife interactions. Experiences from Europe highlight the importance of early detection, transfusion safety, and integrated surveillance within a One Health framework. Strengthening preparedness in Latin America will require investments in diagnostic infrastructure, implementation of standardized seroepidemiological surveys, development of predictive models tailored to local ecological contexts, and robust intersectoral collaboration. Full article

At least seven species of wild cats inhabit Colombia, and these species are also distributed throughout Mexico, Central America, and the rest of South America (jaguar, puma, jaguarundi, ocelot, margay, tigrina, and Pampas cat). A checklist and review of phylogeographic and population genetic studies on these seven wild cat species has been conducted here, as this information is vital for effective conservation programs. The jaguar is the feline species on which the most population genetic studies have been carried out in the Neotropics. In general, little genetic structure has been found at a macro-geographic scale. Genetic diversity is high in countries such as Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, and generally throughout the Amazon basin. However, genetic diversity is more moderate or even significantly lower in Mexico and the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Much of the genetic research on the jaguar has focused on Brazil, Mexico, and Belize, but Colombia is also very well represented in these studies. However, there is a complete or very pronounced lack of data in other areas such as Venezuela, the Guianas, some Central American countries, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. After the jaguar, the most studied feline in Neotropics from a population genetics perspective is the puma. In North America, this species has low genetic diversity, while the diversity in Central America is moderate, and South America is where genetic diversity is highest. The countries best represented in these studies are Brazil (southern of the country), Mexico, Belize, and Argentina. However, countries like Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Paraguay are very poorly represented in puma genetic studies. Very few genetic studies have been conducted on the jaguarundi, despite its vast geographic distribution. In northern Mexico, its genetic diversity is very low, but in countries like Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia, genetic diversity is very high. Colombia is probably the country where jaguarundis have been genetically studied most extensively. The third wild cat species with the most molecular studies in Neotropics is the ocelot, although it lags considerably behind jaguars and pumas. Its genetic diversity is low in Texas and northern Mexico, but very high, especially in countries surrounding the Amazon basin. A good number of macro-geographic studies have been conducted on the ocelot, and these studies are very representative of ocelots in countries such as Colombia (probably the best represented country), Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Panama, and Costa Rica. However, there are other countries where molecular studies of the ocelot have not been carried out, such as Paraguay and Argentina, with the lack of such studies in Brazil being particularly noteworthy. Very few molecular studies have been conducted on the margay. In general, its genetic diversity is very high in all the studies performed. Colombia, Peru and Bolivia are very well represented, but the lack of molecular studies in Mexico, much of Central America, and South American countries such as Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina is striking. The tigrina is one of the Neotropical wild cat species that requires the most molecular studies to unravel its complex systematics. Only the southern Brazilian tigrina (Leopardus guttulus), which was elevated to a new species, has generated comprehensive molecular information. Molecular studies of the Andean tigrina have revealed a very complex picture that, at present, does not allow us to know exactly how many species or taxa inhabit that area of South America and, therefore, to develop a conservation program that adequately correlates with that number of taxa. Finally, in the case of the Pampas cat, molecular studies are well represented with specimens from Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Studies are needed in Paraguay, and especially in Ecuador and southern Colombia (assuming a stable population of Pampas cats exists in the latter country), where even at the molecular level, the specific taxon (one species or five species) present has not yet been determined. All this information is essential for developing effective regional and global conservation programs for these magnificent creatures. In Colombia, the development of molecular studies with the puma, the tigrina, and the Pampas cat is of special interest. Full article

Understanding the services provided by coastal ecosystems is vital for their study, preservation, and restoration. Mangrove forests, in particular, provide key ecosystem services: they sequester carbon, support fisheries and biodiversity, and facilitate sustainable tourism. In the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico, mangrove-related services have been studied extensively, but often via fragmented approaches. This meta-analysis combines a literature review, bibliometric tools, and thematic mapping to identify emerging trends and long-standing gaps. We analyzed 61 peer-reviewed studies across 21 sovereign states and U.S. states, which highlighted shifting research priorities and a lack of convergence—defined herein as the failure of individual studies to examine multiple ecosystem service categories (regulating, cultural, supporting, and provisioning) simultaneously to assess potential trade-offs. While early research emphasized supporting services such as fishery nurseries, recent studies focus on regulating services, especially carbon sequestration. Stakeholder engagement remains limited, with only 18% of studies incorporating local perspectives. We argue for greater integration of stakeholder input and convergence across service categories to enhance the scientific basis for mangrove management and policy design. Full article

African American (AA) women often experience earlier onset and more severe menopause symptoms, especially vasomotor symptoms (VMSs) like hot flashes, compared to other groups. However, limited research has examined the effectiveness and acceptability of menopause treatments in this population. This scoping review synthesized evidence on pharmacological (e.g., hormone replacement therapy [HRT], SSRIs, venlafaxine, nitroglycerin) and holistic (e.g., dietary changes, physical activity [PA], supplementation) approaches for managing menopause symptoms in AA women. Using Joanna Briggs Institute and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a scoping review was conducted, guided by the PCC framework. Four databases (CINAHL, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus) were searched for English-language studies (2010–2025) involving AA women aged 40–65. Eligible studies included RCTs and observational designs with ≥10% AA participants. Data were charted and synthesized descriptively. Fourteen U.S.-based studies (11–53% AA representation) were included. Pharmacological treatments—especially HRT and SSRIs—were effective for VMSs and mood symptoms. Holistic approaches showed mixed outcomes; PA and magnesium offered modest benefit, while phytoestrogens sometimes worsened memory. Race-specific results were rarely reported. Effective pharmacological options exist, but evidence tailored to AA women is lacking. Future research must ensure greater AA representation and culturally responsive approaches to menopause care. Full article

The Archaic period in the Maya lowlands of Mesoamerica emerged around 8000 BCE and likely lasted until about 1000 BCE; however, both the development and complex cultural adaptations representative of Archaic peoples present challenges for archaeologists. In central Belize, archaeological evidence for Archaic people is limited, especially when compared to northern and southern Belize. Nevertheless, our knowledge of Archaic lifestyles in this part of the world has substantially increased over the last twenty years or so. This paper reviews the current understanding of the Archaic period in central Belize based primarily on radiocarbon dates from stratigraphic excavations, diagnostic lithic artifacts, and both faunal and floral remains recovered from excavations, and compares these data to archaeological evidence from northern and southern Belize for regional contextualization and synthesis. Although some aspects of Archaic lifestyles in central Belize appear quite clear based on the available archaeological evidence, others remain elusive. More regional surveys to find sites and an increased number of excavations with datable stratigraphic contexts are needed to more accurately reconstruct the lives of the people who initially inhabited central Belize prior to the emergence of the first culturally recognizable Maya. Full article

Vampire bats likely first appeared in South America in the early Miocene (~20 Ma) and evolved to feed upon the blood of native South American mammals of medium to large body size, in particular, xenarthrans–ground sloths, armadillos, pampatheres, and glyptodonts, and native ungulates–notoungulates and litopterns. Following the formation of the Panamanian Isthmus (~5 Ma), vampire bats immigrated into North America as participants in the Great American Biotic Interchange, following their preferred prey species, probably xenarthrans. The earliest records of vampire bats are the extinct species Desmodus archaeodaptes from three early Pleistocene faunas in Florida. The large extinct vampire D. stocki occurs in 18 late Pleistocene faunas in the southern US and Mexico. The giant extinct vampire D. draculae is known from eight late Pleistocene faunas from Mexico and Belize south to Brazil and Argentina. The late Pleistocene extinction of D. draculae and D. stocki coincided with the extinction of their primary source of blood, the mammalian megafauna. The common vampire bat D. rotundus survived and now occurs throughout tropical America because it had a broader prey base, feeding on the blood of a variety of medium- to large-sized mammals, and currently preying preferentially on non-native domestic livestock. Full article

Even though it has been previously suggested that Spanglish is not exclusive to the US, research on this sociolinguistic phenomenon has focused on the US Hispanophone context, thus providing a limited understanding of how the US compares to Belize and Gibraltar, two language contact situations where Spanglish is also attested. This paper fills this gap by bringing together insights from scholarship on these three contexts where Spanish has been in prolonged contact with English. To this end, this article highlights some of the key debates and discussions regarding Spanglish. It also introduces the reader to some similarities between the US, Belize and Gibraltar and posits that there are Spanglish phenomena, which necessarily entail the reevaluation of the role that structural hybridity plays in Spanglish. Lastly, through an overview of comparative analyses that have been conducted more recently, we illustrate the importance of this work in elucidating our knowledge of the remarkable patterns of uniformity and variability that characterize the dynamic nature of Spanglish varieties in different parts of the world today. Full article

The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) launched the One Health policy in September 2021. To respond to this regional policy, a baseline was generated regarding the use of One Health intersectoral actions aimed at preventing, controlling, and eliminating zoonotic, foodborne diseases and antimicrobial resistance. For this purpose, in July 2022, the Pan American Food and Mouth Disease and Veterinary Public Health Center, Pan American, Health Organization/World Health Organization (PANAFTOSA/VPH-PAHO/WHO), organized a meeting in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to bring together recognized public health and animal health and food safety officers from ministries of health and agriculture from nine different countries of the region: Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Honduras, México, and Uruguay, including the three representatives of the Americas in the Quadripartite Panel of One Health High Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP 2021–2024). Several good practice examples and lessons learned of multisectoral communication, collaboration, coordination, and capacity building regarding control and prevention of zoonoses, food safety, and antimicrobial resistance programs were identified in these countries. The establishment of governance mechanisms and legal frameworks were the main aspects discussed, followed by the importance of the environmental sector, which often is poorly articulated in One Health initiatives. The leadership of PAHO for more than seven decades is part of the good health governance practices to create the ground for the One Health implementation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Full article

In recent years, the availability of automated change detection algorithms in Google Earth Engine has permitted the cloud-based processing of large quantities of satellite imagery. Models such as the Continuous Change Detection and Classification (CCDC), CCDC-Spectral Mixture Analysis (CCDC-SMA), and Landsat-based Detection of Trends in Disturbance and Recovery (LandTrendr) allow users to exploit decades of Earth Observations (EOs), leveraging the Landsat archive and data from other sensors to detect disturbances in forest ecosystems. Despite the wide adoption of these methods, robust documentation, and a growing community of users, little research has systematically detailed their tuning process in mangrove environments. This work aims to identify the best practices for applying these models to monitor changes within mangrove forest cover, which has been declining gradually in Belize the last several decades. Partnering directly with the Belizean Forest Department, our team developed a replicable, efficient methodology to annually update the country’s mangrove extent, employing EO-based change detection. We ran a series of model variations in both CCDC-SMA and LandTrendr to identify the parameterizations best suited to identifying change in Belizean mangroves. Applying the best performing model run to the starting 2017 mangrove extent, we estimated a total loss of 540 hectares in mangrove coverage by 2024. Overall accuracy across thirty variations in model runs of LandTrendr and CCDC-SMA ranged from 0.67 to 0.75. While CCDC-SMA generally detected more disturbances and had higher precision for true changes, LandTrendr runs tended to have higher recall. Our results suggest LandTrendr offered more flexibility in balancing precision and recall for true changes compared to CCDC-SMA, due to its greater variety of adjustable parameters. Full article

This article presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of scientific production in Central America between 1996 and 2023, based on data indexed in the Scopus database. The study frames the investigation within the broader context of scientific visibility and regional development, aiming to evaluate trends in research productivity, thematic specialization, and patterns of scientific collaboration across Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. A total of 35,146 articles authored by researchers affiliated with institutions in Central America were analyzed using indicators such as publication volume, subject areas, journal impact and co-authorship data provided by Scopus. The findings reveal a consistent annual growth rate of 7%, yet with marked disparities among countries. Costa Rica, Panama, and Guatemala account for 82% of the total scientific output, while the remaining countries contribute only 18%. Research activity is primarily concentrated in the medical, agricultural, biological, and environmental sciences. Over 80% of publications involve international collaboration, predominantly with the United States, Spain, and Mexico, whereas intraregional cooperation remains limited. The analysis underscores the region’s reliance on global research networks and reveals persistent internal asymmetries in scientific development. The results suggest the need for increased investment in national research systems, stronger regional collaboration, and targeted strategies to balance scientific production across countries. Full article

The estimation of accurate and precise Satellite-Derived Bathymetries (SDBs) is important in marine and coastal applications for a better understanding of the ecosystems and science-based decision-making. Despite the advancements in related Machine Learning (ML) studies, quantifying the anticipated bias per pixel in the SDBs remains a significant challenge. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by developing a spatially explicit uncertainty index of a ML-derived SDB, capable of providing a quantifiable anticipation for biases of 0.5, 1, and 2 m. In addition, we explore the usage of this index for model optimization via the exclusion of training points of high or moderate uncertainty via a six-fold iteration loop. The developed methodology is applied across the national coastal extent of Belize in Central America (~7017 km²) and utilizes remote sensing data from the European Space Agency’s twin satellite system Sentinel-2 and Planet’s NICFI PlanetScope. In total, 876 Sentinel-2 images, nine NICFI six-month basemaps and 28 monthly PlanetScope mosaics are processed in this study. The training dataset is based on NASA’s system Ice, Cloud and Elevation Satellite (ICESat-2), while the validation data are in situ measurements collected with scientific equipment (e.g., multibeam sonar) and were provided by the National Oceanography Centre, UK. According to our results, the presented approach is able to provide a pixel-based (i.e., spatially explicit) uncertainty index for a specific prediction bias and integrate it to refine the SDB. It should be noted that the efficiency of the optimization of the SDBs as well as the correlations of the proposed uncertainty index with the absolute prediction error and the true depth are low. Nevertheless, spatially explicit uncertainty information produced by a ML-related SDB provides substantial insight to advance coastal ecosystem monitoring thanks to its capability to showcase the difficulty of the model to provide a prediction. Such spatially explicit uncertainty products can also aid the communication of coastal aquatic products with decision makers and provide potential improvements in SDB modeling. Full article

A competitive electrochemical immunosensor, using screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs), was developed for the determination of total fumonisins (sum of FB1, FB2 and FB3) extracted with a simple solvent extraction and dilution method, without clean up, from maize flour and maize tortillas. The optimized biosensor has a linear range of 0.25 to 50 µg/L with 3% and 2% reproducibility for FB1 and (FB1 + FB2), respectively, and a linear range of 0.25 to 10 µg/L with 2% reproducibility for (FB1 + FB2 + FB3). The limits of detection and quantification in PBS buffer for total fumonisins are 0.12 µg/L and 0.39 µg/L, respectively. These values in the maize matrix are 6.07 µg/kg and 20.25 µg/kg, respectively. In addition, the stability and the selectivity of the sensor were studied. The immunosensor was validated with liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. This novel biosensor is more rapid, simpler and cheaper than current methods, and can also be used at the point of need. Full article

Tourism offers many economic benefits but can have long-lasting ecological effects when improperly managed. Tourism can cause overwhelming pressure on wastewater treatment systems, as in Belize, where some of the over 400 small islands (cayes) that were once temporary sites for fishermen have become popular tourist destinations. An overabundance of nitrogen, in part as a result of incomplete wastewater treatment, threatens human health and ecosystem services. The tourism industry is a complex and dynamic industry with many sectors and stakeholders with conflicting goals. In this study, a systems thinking approach was adopted to study the dynamic interactions between stakeholders and the environment at Laughing Bird Caye National Park in Belize. The project centered on nutrient discharges from the caye’s onsite wastewater treatment system. An archetype analysis approach was applied to frame potential solutions to nutrient pollution and understand potential behaviors over time. “Out of control” and “Underachievement” were identified as system archetypes; “Shifting the Burden” and ‘‘Limits to Success’’ were used to model specific cases. Based on these results, upgrading of the wastewater treatment system should be performed concurrently with investments in the user experience of the toilets, education on the vulnerability of the treatment system and ecosystem, and controls on the number of daily tourists. Full article

Increasing forest destruction from land use and land cover change (LULCC) has altered catchment hydrological processes worldwide. This trend is also endemic to the Belize River Watershed (BRW), a significant source of land and water resources for Belize. This study aims to understand LULCC impacts on BRW hydrological responses from 2000 to 2020 by applying the widely used Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). This study identified historical trends in LULCC in the BRW and explored an alternative 2020 land cover scenario to elucidate the role of protected forests for hydrological response regulation. A SWAT model for the BRW was developed at the monthly timescale and calibrated on in situ streamflow using SWAT Calibrations and Uncertainty Programs (SWAT-CUP). The results showed that the BRW SWAT model performed satisfactorily for streamflow simulation at the Benque Viejo (BV) gauge station but performed variably at the Double Run (DR) gauge station. Overall, the findings revealed watershed-level increases in monthly average sediment yield (34.40%), surface runoff (24.95%), streamflow (16.86%), water yield (16.02%), baseflow (11.58%), and percolation (3.40%), and decreases in monthly average evapotranspiration (ET) (3.52%). In conclusion, the BRW SWAT model is promising for uncovering the hydrological impacts of LULCCs with opportunities for further model improvement. Full article

Hand hygiene (HH) in school settings can reduce the spread of infectious diseases and student absenteeism due to illness. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the World Health Organization recommended HH as a public health measure to prevent disease transmission. Understanding school staff’s experiences with school-based programs is important for future program development and improvement. As part of a mixed-methods study, we conducted in-depth interviews in March 2022 with school administrators and teachers at 12 primary schools in Belize, selected based on high gaps in HH resources, to understand HH responsibilities, supplies, and challenges. An intervention was implemented to increase HH knowledge and practices among students, which included environmental nudges, supplemental provision of soap, and HH lesson implementation. Follow-up interviews were conducted in June 2023 among school administrators to garner feedback on the intervention. School staff described roles in teaching and managing HH supplies at both timepoints. The environmental nudges and HH lessons were perceived as helpful, but there were gaps remaining in HH practices, which may be partially influenced by practices and beliefs outside of school. Procurement of HH supplies remained a challenge at some schools due to financial constraints. The feedback from school staff will be valuable for the implementation of future hand hygiene programs in schools. Full article