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Authors = Behrouz Zolfaghari ORCID = 0000-0001-6691-0988

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57 pages, 1459 KiB  
Review
From Bottom of Sea to Space: Quo Vadis IoT? So What About Security?
by Behrouz Zolfaghari, Jacob Krzciok and Khodakhast Bibak
Future Internet 2025, 17(2), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/fi17020091 - 17 Feb 2025
Viewed by 989
Abstract
In recent years, we have witnessed the era of IoT. Extensions of the IoT are found almost everywhere in the modern world: under the ground, on the ground, under the sea, in the sky, and in space. Such a rapid proliferation has given [...] Read more.
In recent years, we have witnessed the era of IoT. Extensions of the IoT are found almost everywhere in the modern world: under the ground, on the ground, under the sea, in the sky, and in space. Such a rapid proliferation has given rise to a variety of requirements and challenges. As suggested by the recent literature, security is the most critical challenge in this area. A comprehensive survey in this area can pave the way for further research by highlighting current trends and shedding light on less-studied aspects of the area. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current state of research on IoT extensions, with a focus on security. We start with reviewing existing relevant surveys, noting their shortcomings. We highlight the lack of inclusiveness in existing surveys. Moreover, we show that these surveys do not look closely at security challenges and fail to develop a taxonomy or a solid future roadmap. Then, we provide an overview of the security challenges and mechanisms of IoT extensions. We proceed to develop a taxonomy of these extensions with a focus on security. Lastly, we discuss what the future may hold for IoT extensions, given the role of artificial intelligence in IoT and the advancements of artificial intelligence on the horizon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Featured Papers in the Section Internet of Things, 2nd Edition)
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33 pages, 862 KiB  
Review
AI Makes Crypto Evolve
by Behrouz Zolfaghari and Takeshi Koshiba
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2022, 5(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5040075 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6039
Abstract
The recent literature reveals a dichotomy formed by a coevolution between cryptography and Artificial Intelligence (AI). This dichotomy consists of two sides, namely Crypto-Influenced AI (CIAI) and AI-Influenced Cryptography (AIIC). While it is pertinent to investigate this dichotomy from both sides, the first [...] Read more.
The recent literature reveals a dichotomy formed by a coevolution between cryptography and Artificial Intelligence (AI). This dichotomy consists of two sides, namely Crypto-Influenced AI (CIAI) and AI-Influenced Cryptography (AIIC). While it is pertinent to investigate this dichotomy from both sides, the first side has already been studied. In this review, we focused on AIIC. We identified and analyzed the stages on the evolutionary path of AIIC. Moreover, we attempted to anticipate what the future may hold for AIIC given the impact of quantum computing on the present and the future of AI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence)
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33 pages, 912 KiB  
Article
From Random Numbers to Random Objects
by Behrouz Zolfaghari, Khodakhast Bibak and Takeshi Koshiba
Entropy 2022, 24(7), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24070928 - 4 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3321
Abstract
Many security-related scenarios including cryptography depend on the random generation of passwords, permutations, Latin squares, CAPTCHAs and other types of non-numerical entities. Random generation of each entity type is a different problem with different solutions. This study is an attempt at a unified [...] Read more.
Many security-related scenarios including cryptography depend on the random generation of passwords, permutations, Latin squares, CAPTCHAs and other types of non-numerical entities. Random generation of each entity type is a different problem with different solutions. This study is an attempt at a unified solution for all of the mentioned problems. This paper is the first of its kind to pose, formulate, analyze and solve the problem of random object generation as the general problem of generating random non-numerical entities. We examine solving the problem via connecting it to the well-studied random number generation problem. To this end, we highlight the challenges and propose solutions for each of them. We explain our method using a case study; random Latin square generation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Multidisciplinary Applications)
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28 pages, 846 KiB  
Review
The Dichotomy of Neural Networks and Cryptography: War and Peace
by Behrouz Zolfaghari and Takeshi Koshiba
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2022, 5(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5040061 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5495
Abstract
In recent years, neural networks and cryptographic schemes have come together in war and peace; a cross-impact that forms a dichotomy deserving a comprehensive review study. Neural networks can be used against cryptosystems; they can play roles in cryptanalysis and attacks against encryption [...] Read more.
In recent years, neural networks and cryptographic schemes have come together in war and peace; a cross-impact that forms a dichotomy deserving a comprehensive review study. Neural networks can be used against cryptosystems; they can play roles in cryptanalysis and attacks against encryption algorithms and encrypted data. This side of the dichotomy can be interpreted as a war declared by neural networks. On the other hand, neural networks and cryptographic algorithms can mutually support each other. Neural networks can help improve the performance and the security of cryptosystems, and encryption techniques can support the confidentiality of neural networks. The latter side of the dichotomy can be referred to as the peace. There are, to the best of our knowledge, no current surveys that take a comprehensive look at the many ways neural networks are currently interacting with cryptography. This survey aims to fill that niche by providing an overview on the state of the cross-impact between neural networks and cryptography systems. To this end, this paper will highlight the current areas where progress is being made as well as the aspects where there is room for future research to be conducted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence)
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38 pages, 927 KiB  
Review
Chaotic Image Encryption: State-of-the-Art, Ecosystem, and Future Roadmap
by Behrouz Zolfaghari and Takeshi Koshiba
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2022, 5(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5030057 - 13 Jun 2022
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 10491
Abstract
Recently, many researchers have been interested in the application of chaos in cryptography. Specifically, numerous research works have been focusing on chaotic image encryption. A comprehensive survey can highlight existing trends and shed light on less-studied topics in the area of chaotic image [...] Read more.
Recently, many researchers have been interested in the application of chaos in cryptography. Specifically, numerous research works have been focusing on chaotic image encryption. A comprehensive survey can highlight existing trends and shed light on less-studied topics in the area of chaotic image encryption. In addition to such a survey, this paper studies the main challenges in this field, establishes an ecosystem for chaotic image encryption, and develops a future roadmap for further research in this area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence)
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27 pages, 790 KiB  
Review
The Odyssey of Entropy: Cryptography
by Behrouz Zolfaghari, Khodakhast Bibak and Takeshi Koshiba
Entropy 2022, 24(2), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/e24020266 - 12 Feb 2022
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 7218
Abstract
After being introduced by Shannon as a measure of disorder and unavailable information, the notion of entropy has found its applications in a broad range of scientific disciplines. In this paper, we present a systematic review on the applications of entropy and related [...] Read more.
After being introduced by Shannon as a measure of disorder and unavailable information, the notion of entropy has found its applications in a broad range of scientific disciplines. In this paper, we present a systematic review on the applications of entropy and related information-theoretical concepts in the design, implementation and evaluation of cryptographic schemes, algorithms, devices and systems. Moreover, we study existing trends, and establish a roadmap for future research in these areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Information Theory, Probability and Statistics)
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22 pages, 464 KiB  
Article
Cryptography in Hierarchical Coded Caching: System Model and Cost Analysis
by Behrouz Zolfaghari, Vikrant Singh, Brijesh Kumar Rai, Khodakhast Bibak and Takeshi Koshiba
Entropy 2021, 23(11), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/e23111459 - 3 Nov 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2465
Abstract
The idea behind network caching is to reduce network traffic during peak hours via transmitting frequently-requested content items to end users during off-peak hours. However, due to limited cache sizes and unpredictable access patterns, this might not totally eliminate the need for data [...] Read more.
The idea behind network caching is to reduce network traffic during peak hours via transmitting frequently-requested content items to end users during off-peak hours. However, due to limited cache sizes and unpredictable access patterns, this might not totally eliminate the need for data transmission during peak hours. Coded caching was introduced to further reduce the peak hour traffic. The idea of coded caching is based on sending coded content which can be decoded in different ways by different users. This allows the server to service multiple requests by transmitting a single content item. Research works regarding coded caching traditionally adopt a simple network topology consisting of a single server, a single hub, a shared link connecting the server to the hub, and private links which connect the users to the hub. Building on the results of Sengupta et al. (IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur., 2015), we propose and evaluate a yet more complex system model that takes into consideration both throughput and security via combining the mentioned ideas. It is demonstrated that the achievable rates in the proposed model are within a constant multiplicative and additive gap with the minimum secure rates. Full article
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24 pages, 6196 KiB  
Article
A Review on Security of Smart Farming and Precision Agriculture: Security Aspects, Attacks, Threats and Countermeasures
by Abbas Yazdinejad, Behrouz Zolfaghari, Amin Azmoodeh, Ali Dehghantanha, Hadis Karimipour, Evan Fraser, Arthur G. Green, Conor Russell and Emily Duncan
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7518; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167518 - 16 Aug 2021
Cited by 93 | Viewed by 17801
Abstract
In recent years, Smart Farming (SF) and Precision Agriculture (PA) have attracted attention from both the agriculture industry as well as the research community. Altogether, SF and PA aim to help farmers use inputs (such as fertilizers and pesticides) more efficiently through using [...] Read more.
In recent years, Smart Farming (SF) and Precision Agriculture (PA) have attracted attention from both the agriculture industry as well as the research community. Altogether, SF and PA aim to help farmers use inputs (such as fertilizers and pesticides) more efficiently through using Internet of Things (IoT) devices, but in doing so, they create new security threats that can defeat this purpose in the absence of adequate awareness and proper countermeasures. A survey on different security-related challenges is required to raise awareness and pave they way for further research in this area. In this paper, we first itemize the security aspects of SF and PA. Next, we review the types of cyber attacks that can violate each of these aspects. Accordingly, we present a taxonomy on cyber-threats to SF and PA on the basis of their relations to different stages of Cyber-Kill Chain (CKC). Among cyber-threats, we choose Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs) for further study. Finally, we studied related risk mitigation strategies and countermeasure, and developed a future road map for further study in this area. This paper’s main contribution is a categorization of security threats within the SF/PA areas and provide a taxonomy of security threats for SF environments so that we may detect the behavior of APT attacks and any other security threat in SF and PA environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue State-of-the-Art of Cybersecurity)
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