The Humanoid Robot Sil-Bot in a Cognitive Training Program for Community-Dwelling Elderly People with Mild Cognitive Impairment during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Demographic Changes and Mild Cognitive Impairment
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Participants
2.3. Materials
2.3.1. Main Software
2.3.2. Variables and Measuring Instruments
Cognition
Subjective Memory Complaints
Neuropsychological Assessment
Depression
2.3.3. Data Analysis
2.4. Procedure
2.4.1. RACT Groups
2.4.2. TCT Groups
2.4.3. NI Groups
2.5. Ethical Considerations
3. Results
3.1. Sample Description
3.2. Effect of Humanoid Robot Sil-Bot in a Cognitive Training Program on Cognition and Depression
3.3. Differences in the Pre- and Post-Intervention Effects
3.3.1. Cognition
3.3.2. Subjective Memory Complaints
3.3.3. Neuropsychological Assessment
3.3.4. Depression
3.4. Differences in the Pre- and Post-Intervention Effects According to General Characteristics
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Detailed Specifics | Category | Detailed Specifics |
---|---|---|---|
Size | 480 × 520 × 1150 (mm) | System | Intel i3 CPU |
8G DDR4 RAM | |||
2 × USB 3.0 | |||
Wireless Ethernet | |||
Gigabit Ethernet | |||
Weight | 25 kg | OS | Linux Ubuntu |
Battery usage time | 4–6 h | Display | 9.7 inch IPS decompression formula |
Display (1024 × 768 Resolution) | |||
Battery charging time | 90 min (220 Vcharger) | Sensor, etc. | Gyro sensor, LED |
Battery | 24 V Lithium ion | Camera | HD 720 P (1280 × 720) (mm) |
Degree of freedom | 11 (arms, head, mobile) | Software | ROS Kinetic |
Voice and language | Korean (adult female 3 types, adult male 3 types, child 3 types) | Smart pad | Galaxytab10.1 (Samsung Electronics, Seoul, Korea) |
English (adult female 3 types, adult male 2 types) |
Variables | Categories | Total (N = 135) | Robot-Assisted (N = 45) | Traditional (N = 45) | No Intervention (N = 45) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |||
Cognitive impairment status | MCI | 57 (42.2) | 17 (37.8) | 22 (48.9) | 18 (40.0) | 0.529 |
SMC | 78 (57.8) | 28 (62.2) | 23 (51.1) | 27 (60.0) | ||
Age (years), Mean ± SD | 75.9 ± 6.1 | 75.5 ± 5.9 | 76.7 ± 5.9 | 75.6 ± 6.6 | 0.959 | |
Gender | Male | 37 (27.4) | 13 (28.9) | 12 (26.7) | 12 (26.7) | 0.963 |
Female | 98 (72.6) | 32 (71.1) | 33 (73.3) | 33 (73.3) | ||
Living status (duplicate selection) | Alone | 45 (33.3) | 21 (46.7) | 13 (28.9) | 11 (24.4) | 0.061 |
Spouse | 66 (48.9) | 18 (40.0) | 25 (55.6) | 23 (51.1) | 0.315 | |
Children | 30 (22.2) | 10 (22.2) | 8 (17.8) | 12 (26.7) | 0.598 | |
Offspring | 8 (5.9) | 2 (4.4) | 2 (4.4) | 4 (8.9) | 0.588 | |
Etc. | 2 (1.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.4) | 0.131 | |
Number of children | None | 6 (4.4) | 5 (11.1) | 1 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0.189 |
1 | 19 (14.1) | 8 (17.8) | 6 (13.3) | 5 (11.1) | ||
2 | 39 (28.9) | 11 (24.4) | 14 (31.1) | 14 (31.1) | ||
≥3 | 71 (52.6) | 21 (46.7) | 24 (53.3) | 26 (57.8) | ||
Level of education | Mean ± SD | 8.8 ± 4.3 | 9.3 ± 4.2 | 8.4 ± 4.6 | 8.8 ± 4.2 | 0.645 |
None | 12 (8.9) | 3 (6.7) | 5 (11.1) | 4 (8.9) | 0.749 | |
Elementary school | 43 (31.9) | 14 (31.1) | 17 (37.8) | 12 (26.7) | ||
Middle school | 32 (23.7) | 9 (20.0) | 9 (20.0) | 14 (31.1) | ||
High school | 30 (22.2) | 13 (28.9) | 7 (15.6) | 10 (22.2) | ||
College and higher | 18 (13.3) | 6 (13.3) | 7 (15.6) | 5 (11.1) | ||
Health status | Average | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.9 | 3.2 ± 0.9 | 0.906 |
Very good | 2 (1.5) | 1 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 0.899 | |
good | 30 (22.2) | 10 (22.2) | 12 (26.7) | 8 (17.8) | ||
Moderate | 61 (45.2) | 18 (40.0) | 22 (48.9) | 21 (46.7) | ||
Bad | 33 (24.4) | 13 (28.9) | 8 (17.8) | 12 (26.7) | ||
Very bad | 9 (6.7) | 3 (6.7) | 3 (6.7) | 3 (6.7) | ||
Comorbidity status (duplicate selection) | None | 17 (12.6) | 3 (6.7) | 5 (11.1) | 9 (20.0) | 0.152 |
Hypertension | 70 (51.9) | 27 (60.0) | 25 (55.6) | 18 (40.0) | 0.137 | |
Diabetes | 32 (23.7) | 12 (26.7) | 8 (17.8) | 12 (26.7) | 0.519 | |
Stroke | 9 (6.7) | 4 (8.9) | 2 (4.4) | 3 (6.7) | 0.700 | |
Arthritis | 42 (31.1) | 17 (37.8) | 9 (20.0) | 16 (35.6) | 0.139 | |
Incontinence | 15 (11.1) | 5 (11.1) | 4 (8.9) | 6 (13.3) | 0.799 | |
Cancer | 7 (5.2) | 4 (8.9) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (6.7) | 0.141 | |
Heart disease | 17 (12.6) | 6 (13.3) | 4 (8.9) | 7 (15.6) | 0.624 | |
Hyperlipidemia | 20 (14.8) | 3 (6.7) | 9 (20.0) | 8 (17.8) | 0.162 | |
Etc. | 41 (30.4) | 17 (37.8) | 12 (26.7) | 12 (26.7) | 0.417 |
Variables | Robot-Assisted a (N = 45) | Traditional b (N = 45) | No Intervention c (N = 45) | p | Source | F | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD | ||||||||
MMSE-DS | Pre | 25.3 ± 4.1 | 26.6 ± 3.0 | 25.8 ± 3.9 | 0.516 | Time | 3.939 | 0.049 |
Post | 26.6 ± 3.3 | 26.3 ± 3.1 | 26.0 ± 4.1 | 0.387 | Time × group | 6.172 | 0.003 | |
Group | 0.335 | 0.716 | ||||||
SMCQ | Pre | 5.9 ± 3.3 | 7.6 ± 2.0 | 6.3 ± 2.4 | 0.46 | Time | 31.744 | <0.001 |
Post | 4.7 ± 3.5 | 5.0 ± 3.2 | 6.6 ± 3.0 | 0.008 | Time × group | 14.635 | <0.001 | |
a < c | Group | 2.328 | 0.102 | |||||
CERAD-K | Pre | 67.8 ± 15.1 | 64.5 ± 16.0 | 64.9 ± 13.7 | 0.368 | Time | 46.558 | <0.001 |
Post | 71.6 ± 14.6 | 69.0 ± 17.4 | 66.0 ± 15.2 | 0.091 | Time × group | 5.274 | 0.006 | |
Group | 0.925 | 0.399 | ||||||
GDSSF-K | Pre | 4.3 ± 4.8 | 3.8 ± 3.8 | 4.9 ± 3.9 | 0.481 | Time | 0.949 | 0.332 |
Post | 3.0 ± 3.6 | 4.7 ± 4.9 | 4.7 ± 4.1 | 0.048 | Time × group | 6.284 | 0.002 | |
a < bc | Group | 1.045 | 0.355 |
Variables | Robot-Assisted (N = 45) | Traditional (N = 45) | No Intervention (N = 45) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | Post | t (p) | Pre | Post | t (p) | Pre | Post | t (p) | ||
MMSE-DS | 25.3 ± 4.1 | 26.6 ± 3.3 | 4.707 (<0.001) | 26.6 ± 3.0 | 26.3 ± 3.1 | −1.180 (0.224) | 25.8 ± 3.9 | 26.0 ± 4.1 | 0.355 (0.724) | |
SMCQ | 5.9 ± 3.3 | 4.7 ± 3.5 | −2.282 (0.007) | 7.6 ± 2.0 | 5.0 ± 3.2 | −6.671 (<0.001) | 6.3 ± 2.4 | 6.6 ± 3.0 | 0.842 (0.404) | |
GDSSF-K | 4.3 ± 4.8 | 3.0 ± 3.6 | −3.307 (0.004) | 3.8 ± 3.8 | 4.7 ± 4.9 | 1.971 (0.055) | 4.9 ± 3.9 | 4.7 ± 4.1 | −0.450 (0.655) | |
CERAD-K | Total | 67.8 ± 15.1 | 71.6 ± 14.6 | 4.610 (<0.001) | 64.5 ± 16.0 | 69.0 ± 17.4 | 5.393 (<0.001) | 64.9 ± 13.7 | 66.0 ± 15.2 | 1.487 (0.144) |
Verbal Fluency | 13.4 ± 4.2 | 14.0 ± 5.0 | 1.210 (0.233) | 12.4 ± 3.9 | 12.9 ± 5.0 | 1.068 (0.292) | 11.7 ± 3.7 | 11.7 ± 3.9 | 0.000 (0.999) | |
Boston Naming | 10.9 ± 3.2 | 11.4 ± 2.9 | 2.395 (0.021) | 10.2 ± 2.8 | 10.5 ± 2.9 | 1.108 (0.274) | 10.6 ± 2.6 | 10.6 ± 2.8 | 0.0119 (0.906) | |
MMSE-KC | 25.9 ± 3.6 | 26.6 ± 3.3 | 2.378 (0.022) | 26.6 ± 3.0 | 26.3 ± 3.1 | −1.074 (0.289) | 25.8 ± 3.6 | 26.0 ± 4.1 | 0.555 (0.582) | |
Word List Memory | 16.0 ± 4.2 | 17.1 ± 4.3 | 2.711 (0.010) | 15.7 ± 5.0 | 17.2 ± 5.6 | 2.955 (0.005) | 15.5 ± 3.7 | 16.4 ± 4.4 | 1.932 (0.060) | |
Constructional Praxis | 9.8 ± 1.7 | 9.6 ± 1.9 | −0.831 (0.410) | 9.7 ± 1.7 | 9.6 ± 1.7 | −0.304 (0.763) | 9.4 ± 2.0 | 8.9 ± 2.0 | −2.296 (0.027) | |
Word List Recall | 4.7 ± 2.3 | 5.4 ± 2.0 | 3.387 (0.001) | 4.5 ± 2.7 | 5.3 ± 2.7 | 4.038 (<0.001) | 4.6 ± 2.2 | 5.0 ± 2.7 | 1.633 (0.110) | |
Word List Recognition | 8.2 ± 2.2 | 8.7 ± 2.0 | 2.383 (0.002) | 7.6 ± 2.8 | 7.8 ± 2.4 | 0.946 (0.350) | 8.2 ± 2.1 | 8.4 ± 2.2 | 0.759 (0.452) | |
Constructional Recall | 4.7 ± 3.4 | 5.4 ± 3.1 | 1.907 (0.063) | 4.7 ± 3.2 | 5.7 ± 3.4 | 3.100 (0.003) | 4.9 ± 2.8 | 5.0 ± 2.8 | 0.232 (0.817) |
Variables | Robot-Assisted | Traditional | No Intervention | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Pre | Post | t (p) | N | Pre | Post | t (p) | N | Pre | Post | t (p) | |||
MMSE-DS | Gender | Male | 13 | 25.6 ± 3.7 | 26.6 ± 2.8 | −1.927 (0.078) | 12 | 26.2 ± 2.8 | 25.6 ± 3.3 | 1.023 (0.328) | 12 | 24.6 ± 4.8 | 25.4 ± 4.6 | −0.940 (0.367) |
Female | 32 | 25.2 ± 4.3 | 26.6 ± 3.5 | −4.319 (< 0.001) | 33 | 26.8 ± 3.1 | 26.5 ± 3.1 | 0.713 (0.481) | 33 | 26.3 ± 3.5 | 26.2 ± 4.0 | 0.180 (0.858) | ||
Age | <75 years | 20 | 25.2 ± 3.9 | 27.1 ± 3.0 | −4.498 (< 0.001) | 16 | 27.2 ± 2.7 | 26.6 ± 2.9 | 1.098 (0.289) | 19 | 25.4 ± 4.3 | 26.0 ± 4.8 | −1.207 (0.243) | |
≥75 years | 25 | 25.4 ± 4.3 | 26.3 ± 3.6 | −2.402 (0.024) | 29 | 26.3 ± 3.2 | 26.1 ± 3.2 | 0.519 (0.608) | 26 | 26.1 ± 3.7 | 26.0 ± 3.6 | 0.228 (0.821) | ||
Years of Education | ≤9 years | 26 | 24.3 ± 4.8 | 25.8 ± 3.8 | −3.545 (0.002) | 31 | 26.4 ± 3.2 | 26.3 ± 3.3 | 0.456 (0.651) | 30 | 25.6 ± 3.7 | 25.6 ± 4.1 | −0.11 (0.911) | |
>9 years | 19 | 26.7 ± 2.3 | 27.8 ± 1.9 | −3.162 (0.005) | 14 | 27.0 ± 2.5 | 26.4 ± 2.6 | 1.979 (0.069) | 15 | 26.3 ± 4.4 | 26.7 ± 4.3 | −0.56 (0.587) | ||
SMCQ | Gender | Male | 13 | 6.1 ± 3.2 | 4.3 ± 3.2 | 1.998 (0.069) | 12 | 6.4 ± 2.2 | 3.7 ± 3.1 | 4.371 (0.001) | 12 | 5.4 ± 2.2 | 5.8 ± 2.6 | −0.731 (0.480) |
Female | 32 | 5.8 ± 3.4 | 4.8 ± 3.7 | 2.025 (0.052) | 33 | 8.0 ± 1.7 | 5.4 ± 3.2 | 5.251 (< 0.001) | 33 | 6.7 ± 2.4 | 6.8 ± 3.2 | −0.507 (0.616) | ||
Age | <75 years | 20 | 5.8 ± 3.0 | 4.6 ± 3.3 | 1.842 (0.081) | 16 | 8.1 ± 1.9 | 5.3 ± 3.3 | 3.873 (0.002) | 19 | 5.9 ± 2.4 | 6.3 ± 2.8 | −0.812 (0.427) | |
≥75 years | 25 | 6.0 ± 3.6 | 4.8 ± 3.7 | 2.103 (0.046) | 29 | 7.3 ± 2.0 | 4.8 ± 3.2 | 5.358 (< 0.001) | 26 | 6.6 ± 2.4 | 6.7 ± 3.2 | −0.36 (0.722) | ||
Years of Education | ≤9 years | 26 | 6.3 ± 3.5 | 4.8 ± 3.7 | 2.562 (0.017) | 31 | 7.4 ± 1.5 | 4.4 ± 2.9 | 6.059 (< 0.001) | 30 | 6.4 ± 2.4 | 6.4 ± 3.1 | 0.126 (0.901) | |
>9 years | 19 | 5.3 ± 3.0 | 4.5 ± 3.4 | 1.285 (0.215) | 14 | 8.0 ± 2.8 | 6.3 ± 3.7 | 3.067 (0.009) | 15 | 6.1 ± 2.6 | 6.9 ± 3.0 | −1.26 (0.228) | ||
CERAD-K | Gender | Male | 13 | 66.5 ± 17.7 | 70.0 ± 19.2 | −1.963 (0.073) | 12 | 57.7 ± 15.7 | 63.8 ± 19.8 | −3.163 (0.009) | 12 | 62.8 ± 15.3 | 64.6 ± 16.4 | −1.325 (0.212) |
Female | 32 | 68.3 ± 14.2 | 72.3 ± 12.6 | −4.221 (< 0.001) | 33 | 67.0 ± 15.6 | 70.9 ± 16.4 | −4.381 (< 0.001) | 33 | 65.7 ± 13.3 | 66.5 ± 15.0 | −0.951 (0.349) | ||
Age | <75 years | 20 | 72.1 ± 15.0 | 74.8 ± 14.2 | −2.950 (0.008) | 16 | 65.9 ± 13.3 | 70.3 ± 13.5 | −4.040 (0.001) | 19 | 67.5 ± 15.1 | 69.0 ± 16.0 | −1.661 (0.114) | |
≥75 years | 25 | 64.3 ± 14.6 | 69.1 ± 14.7 | −3.688 (0.001) | 29 | 63.7 ± 17.4 | 68.3 ± 19.5 | −3.956 (< 0.001) | 26 | 63.0 ± 12.6 | 63.8 ± 14.5 | −0.69 (0.495) | ||
Years of Education | ≤9 years | 26 | 64.0 ± 14.8 | 68.8 ± 14.6 | −4.206 (< 0.001) | 31 | 65.6 ± 15.7 | 69.6 ± 17.7 | −4.009 (< 0.001) | 30 | 63.5 ± 13.0 | 64.7 ± 14.9 | −1.29 (0.206) | |
>9 years | 19 | 72.9 ± 14.2 | 75.4 ± 14.0 | −2.150 (0.045) | 14 | 62.0 ± 17.0 | 67.6 ± 17.5 | −3.657 (0.003) | 15 | 67.7 ± 15.2 | 68.6 ± 16.1 | −0.71 (0.487) | ||
GDSSF-K | Gender | Male | 13 | 3.7 ± 4.3 | 1.9 ± 2.7 | 2.599 (0.023) | 12 | 3.0 ± 4.0 | 3.5 ± 4.8 | −0.944 (0.365) | 12 | 4.9 ± 3.6 | 5.9 ± 4.3 | −1.436 (0.179) |
Female | 32 | 4.6 ± 5.0 | 3.4 ± 3.9 | 2.121 (0.042) | 33 | 4.2 ± 3.7 | 5.1 ± 4.9 | −1.745 (0.091) | 33 | 4.9 ± 4.1 | 4.3 ± 4.0 | 1.187 (0.244) | ||
Age | <75 years | 20 | 3.8 ± 4.8 | 3.1 ± 3.0 | 0.928 (0.365) | 16 | 4.6 ± 4.1 | 4.4 ± 4.8 | 0.332 (0.744) | 19 | 6.0 ± 4.6 | 5.8 ± 4.7 | 0.203 (0.841) | |
≥75 years | 25 | 4.8 ± 4.8 | 2.8 ± 4.0 | 3.488 (0.002) | 29 | 3.4 ± 3.5 | 4.8 ± 5.0 | −2.522 (0.018) | 26 | 4.2 ± 3.2 | 3.9 ± 3.5 | 0.433 (0.669) | ||
Years of Education | ≤9 years | 26 | 4.7 ± 5.3 | 2.8 ± 3.7 | 2.794 (0.010) | 31 | 3.7 ± 3.7 | 4.5 ± 4.8 | −1.511 (0.141) | 30 | 4.9 ± 4.0 | 4.7 ± 4.3 | 0.261 (0.796) | |
>9 years | 19 | 3.8 ± 4.1 | 3.1 ± 3.5 | 1.351 (0.193) | 14 | 4.1 ± 4.1 | 4.9 ± 5.1 | −1.295 (0.218) | 15 | 5.1 ± 3.9 | 4.7 ± 3.9 | 0.378 (0.711) |
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Park, E.-A.; Jung, A.-R.; Lee, K.-A. The Humanoid Robot Sil-Bot in a Cognitive Training Program for Community-Dwelling Elderly People with Mild Cognitive Impairment during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158198
Park E-A, Jung A-R, Lee K-A. The Humanoid Robot Sil-Bot in a Cognitive Training Program for Community-Dwelling Elderly People with Mild Cognitive Impairment during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Controlled Trial. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(15):8198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158198
Chicago/Turabian StylePark, Eun-A, Ae-Ri Jung, and Kyoung-A Lee. 2021. "The Humanoid Robot Sil-Bot in a Cognitive Training Program for Community-Dwelling Elderly People with Mild Cognitive Impairment during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Randomized Controlled Trial" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 15: 8198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158198