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Fire
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Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires
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Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255). This special issue belongs to the section "Fire Research at the Science–Policy–Practitioner Interface".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2025) | Viewed by 10992

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Florian Kraxner

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Guest Editor
Agriculture Forestry and Ecosystem Services (AFE) Group, Biodiversity and Natural Resources (BNR) Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
Interests: forestry; mountain risk engineering; natural disturbances; policy impacts
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Andrey Krasovskiy

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Agriculture Forestry and Ecosystem Services (AFE) Group, Biodiversity and Natural Resources (BNR) Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Schlossplatz 1, A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
Interests: wildfire modeling; climate change impacts; natural disturbances
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Bacciu Valentina

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Research Council, Institute of BioEconomy (CNR-IBE), 07100 Sassari, Italy
Interests: fire emissions; climate change; wildland–urban interface fire risk; mapping; forest management adaptation options; fuel modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Global warming combined with inter-annual climate phenomena such as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cause increased risks of wildfires hazards worldwide. Recent fire seasons have shown a new scale of widespread wildfires around the globe with special examples in the tropics, wetlands such as the Pantanal, the Mediterranean region, and the boreal forests of Canada, Siberia, and also the Nordic Countries. Dealing with increasing fire frequencies and areas burned, land ecosystems require novel assessment approaches in anticipating fire risks at local and regional scales, as well as better understanding of fire impacts on the ecosystem and their services, including biodiversity. This special issue aims at featuring historical and current patterns of wildfire dynamics, methodologies to identify local and regional fire-related drivers of ignition and fire propagation, impact assessments of burned areas, GHG emissions, and hazard effects. This includes articles using mechanistic fire modeling, remote sensing and ground-truthing, statistical and data analysis, machine learning methods, emissions modeling/GHG assessments, as well as empirical work. Special emphasis is put on the rural-urban interface, human health and other social/-economic aspects, as well as mitigation and adaptation options under fast climate change.

Dr. Florian Kraxner
Dr. Andrey Krasovskiy
Dr. Bacciu Valentina
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • wildland fire patterns
  • ignition drivers
  • modeling and methodology
  • GHG emissions
  • societal fire impacts
  • hot spot mapping
  • climate change mitigation
  • adaptation to fire risk
  • fire ecology
  • fire risk assessment
  • fire propagation modeling
  • resilience after fire disturbances

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5681 KiB  
Article
LES of Fire Plumes Subjected to Crosswind: The Influence of Wind Profile and Terrain Slope on the Formation of Vertical Structures
by Bruno A. C. Barata and José C. F. Pereira
Fire 2025, 8(4), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8040140 - 31 Mar 2025
Viewed by 227
Abstract
This study investigates the behaviour of plumes from massive fires subjected to crosswinds, focusing on how varying wind profiles and terrain characteristics influence the formation of coherent vortical structures, particularly wake vortices, and the smoke distribution in the near-fire region. Large Eddy Simulations [...] Read more.
This study investigates the behaviour of plumes from massive fires subjected to crosswinds, focusing on how varying wind profiles and terrain characteristics influence the formation of coherent vortical structures, particularly wake vortices, and the smoke distribution in the near-fire region. Large Eddy Simulations (LES) were employed to model the interaction between the plume, generated by a rectangular fireline with an intensity of 40MW/m, and the crosswind. Upon the consideration of several wind intensities (from 5 to 10m/s) and vertical distributions, it was verified that only for relatively low average wind velocities was there significant lateral entrainment to the flame, which promoted the formation of vertical vortical structures. Depending on the vertical distribution of the wind, different mechanisms can play a role in the formation of these structures, with a larger number of mechanisms involved for the cases where there is very low near-wall wind momentum, typical of large vegetation regions. The slope of the terrain (from −20∘ to +20∘) plays a role in these relations since it affects the fire plume inclination and, consequently, the entrainment process. These structures are more likely to appear in downslope terrains. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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20 pages, 4751 KiB  
Article
Experimental Studies on Peat Soils’ Fire Hazard Based on Their Physical and Chemical Properties: The Vasilievsky Mokh Deposit Beneath the Tver Region Agricultural Lands
by Otari Nazirovich Didmanidze, Alexey Vladimirovich Evgrafov, Artembek Sergeevich Guzalov, Nikolay Nikolayevich Pulyaev and Alexey Viktorovich Kurilenko
Fire 2025, 8(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8020068 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 521
Abstract
This study addresses the task of ecologically assessing the consequences of natural fires. Statistical data are presented on the carbon dioxide emissions in millions of tons and analytical data on the locations of peat fires, as well as modern methods of detection and [...] Read more.
This study addresses the task of ecologically assessing the consequences of natural fires. Statistical data are presented on the carbon dioxide emissions in millions of tons and analytical data on the locations of peat fires, as well as modern methods of detection and control of peat and forest fires, divided into groups. An analysis of the works of leading Russian and international scientists and research organizations engaged in the search for methods of peat fire forecasting is also presented. Our aim was to develop a more effective method of preventing peat soil ignition by changing its physical and moisture characteristics. To that end, peat samples were selected in the Tver region. The laboratory equipment and the methodology of our experimental studies are described in detail, in which we simulated the natural climatic conditions in the center of the Russian Federation. This study provides a mathematical description of the process of spontaneous ignition, which occurs according to the following steps: a heat flow heats the surface to the ignition temperature, creating a self-heating zone; eventually, a wave of ignition (smoldering) capable of self-propagation is formed. We experimentally determined the spontaneous thermal ignition conditions in our experimental studies of the fire hazards of selected peat samples, where the test material was loaded in a cylindrical container made of brass net with a 0.8 mm mesh, of the dimensions 30 × 30 mm. Thermocouple elements were placed inside the container, fixing the temperature of the surface and the center of the sample, where the smoldering or ignition zone of the test material formed. We analyzed the results of our experimental studies on peat samples’ self-heating chemical reaction, leading us to draw conclusions about the possibility of fires on peat soil depending on its physical and chemical characteristics. We also offer recommendations that will improve peat soils’ fire safety, permitting agricultural crop production without a peat fire risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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24 pages, 2795 KiB  
Article
Importance Sampling for Cost-Optimized Estimation of Burn Probability Maps in Wildfire Monte Carlo Simulations
by Valentin Waeselynck and David Saah
Fire 2024, 7(12), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7120455 - 3 Dec 2024
Viewed by 803
Abstract
Background: Wildfire modelers rely on Monte Carlo simulations of wildland fire to produce burn probability maps. These simulations are computationally expensive. Methods: We study the application of importance sampling to accelerate the estimation of burn probability maps, using L2 distance as the metric [...] Read more.
Background: Wildfire modelers rely on Monte Carlo simulations of wildland fire to produce burn probability maps. These simulations are computationally expensive. Methods: We study the application of importance sampling to accelerate the estimation of burn probability maps, using L2 distance as the metric of deviation. Results: Assuming a large area of interest, we prove that the optimal proposal distribution reweights the probability of ignitions by the square root of the expected burned area divided by the expected computational cost and then generalize these results to the assets-weighted L2 distance. We also propose a practical approach to searching for a good proposal distribution. Conclusions: These findings contribute quantitative methods for optimizing the precision/computation ratio of wildfire Monte Carlo simulations without biasing the results, offer a principled conceptual framework for justifying and reasoning about other computational shortcuts, and can be readily generalized to a broader spectrum of simulation-based risk modeling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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18 pages, 6929 KiB  
Article
Characterising the Chemical Composition of Bushfire Smoke and Implications for Firefighter Exposure in Western Australia
by Kiam Padamsey, Adelle Liebenberg, Ruth Wallace and Jacques Oosthuizen
Fire 2024, 7(11), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7110388 - 28 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1677
Abstract
This study evaluates bushfire smoke as a workplace hazard for firefighters by characterising its chemical composition and potential health risks in Western Australia. Portable Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was used to measure airborne chemical concentrations at prescribed burns across five regions, including [...] Read more.
This study evaluates bushfire smoke as a workplace hazard for firefighters by characterising its chemical composition and potential health risks in Western Australia. Portable Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was used to measure airborne chemical concentrations at prescribed burns across five regions, including peat (acid sulphate) fire events. Samples were collected during both flaming and smouldering phases, as well as in perceived “clear” air resting zones. Results indicated that carbon monoxide (CO) was the dominant gas, reaching concentrations of 205 ppm at the fire front, followed by nitrogen monoxide (26 ppm) and methane (19 ppm). Peat fires produced distinct profiles, with ammonia (21.5 ppm) and sulphur dioxide (9.5 ppm) concentrations higher than those observed in typical bushfires. Smouldering phases emitted higher chemical concentrations than flaming phases 75% of the time. Even clear air zones contained measurable chemicals, with CO levels averaging 18 ppm, suggesting that firefighters are not free from exposure during rest periods. These findings highlight the need for fit-for-purpose respiratory protective equipment (RPE) and improved rest protocols to minimise exposure. The study underscores the importance of comprehensive health monitoring programs for firefighters to mitigate long-term health risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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16 pages, 1938 KiB  
Article
Effects of Fire Regime on Nitrogen Distribution in Marshlands of the Sanjiang Plain (NE China)
by Shengzhen Ji, Hongmei Zhao, Guoping Wang, Jinxin Cong, Guangxin Li, Dongxue Han and Chuanyu Gao
Fire 2024, 7(10), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7100339 - 26 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1065
Abstract
Fire is a key ecological factor in marshes, significantly influencing the nitrogen (N) cycle. The impacts of different fire regimes on marshes have garnered increasing attention. This study aims to reveal the effects of fire regimes on N distribution in marshes. We conducted [...] Read more.
Fire is a key ecological factor in marshes, significantly influencing the nitrogen (N) cycle. The impacts of different fire regimes on marshes have garnered increasing attention. This study aims to reveal the effects of fire regimes on N distribution in marshes. We conducted field experiments with fixed–point prescribed burning in typical Sanjiang Plain freshwater marshes, exploring the influences of various fire regimes on the distribution of N in marshes. We found that in the spring–burned plots, the soil ammonium (NH4+–N) content increased by 318% with thrice–burned approaches compared to once–burned, and by 186% with thrice–burned compared to twice–burned. In the autumn–burned plots, NH4+–N content increased by 168% and 190%, respectively. Similarly, the soil nitrate (NO3––N) content three years subsequent to burning increased by 29.1% compared to one year since burning, and by 5.96% compared to two years since burning in the spring–burned plots (73.8% and 32.9% increases, respectively, in the autumn–burned plots). The plant stem–N content of the autumn burns increased by 30.9%, 119%, and 89.1% compared to the spring burns after one, two, and three years since burning, respectively. Our results indicate that high fire–frequency promotes marsh N cycling within the span of three years. The marsh soil conversion of NH4+–N to NO3––N was enhanced with increased time since burning. High fire–frequency promotes plant growth, exacerbating competition between plant populations, with this effect being more significant in autumn–burned plots than in spring–burned plots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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23 pages, 31867 KiB  
Article
Anticipating Future Risks of Climate-Driven Wildfires in Boreal Forests
by Shelby Corning, Andrey Krasovskiy, Pavel Kiparisov, Johanna San Pedro, Camila Maciel Viana and Florian Kraxner
Fire 2024, 7(4), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040144 - 17 Apr 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3691
Abstract
Extreme forest fires have historically been a significant concern in Canada, the Russian Federation, the USA, and now pose an increasing threat in boreal Europe. This paper deals with application of the wildFire cLimate impacts and Adaptation Model (FLAM) in boreal forests. FLAM [...] Read more.
Extreme forest fires have historically been a significant concern in Canada, the Russian Federation, the USA, and now pose an increasing threat in boreal Europe. This paper deals with application of the wildFire cLimate impacts and Adaptation Model (FLAM) in boreal forests. FLAM operates on a daily time step and utilizes mechanistic algorithms to quantify the impact of climate, human activities, and fuel availability on wildfire probabilities, frequencies, and burned areas. In our paper, we calibrate the model using historical remote sensing data and explore future projections of burned areas under different climate change scenarios. The study consists of the following steps: (i) analysis of the historical burned areas over 2001–2020; (ii) analysis of temperature and precipitation changes in the future projections as compared to the historical period; (iii) analysis of the future burned areas projected by FLAM and driven by climate change scenarios until the year 2100; (iv) simulation of adaptation options under the worst-case scenario. The modeling results show an increase in burned areas under all Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios. Maintaining current temperatures (RCP 2.6) will still result in an increase in burned area (total and forest), but in the worst-case scenario (RCP 8.5), projected burned forest area will more than triple by 2100. Based on FLAM calibration, we identify hotspots for wildland fires in the boreal forest and suggest adaptation options such as increasing suppression efficiency at the hotspots. We model two scenarios of improved reaction times—stopping a fire within 4 days and within 24 h—which could reduce average burned forest areas by 48.6% and 79.2%, respectively, compared to projected burned areas without adaptation from 2021–2099. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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19 pages, 9603 KiB  
Article
A Combination of Human Activity and Climate Drives Forest Fire Occurrence in Central Europe: The Case of the Czech Republic
by Roman Berčák, Jaroslav Holuša, Jiří Trombik, Karolina Resnerová and Tomáš Hlásny
Fire 2024, 7(4), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040109 - 26 Mar 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1940
Abstract
Central Europe is not a typical wildfire region; however, an increasingly warm and dry climate and model-based projections indicate that the number of forest fires are increasing. This study provides new insights into the drivers of forest fire occurrence in the Czech Republic, [...] Read more.
Central Europe is not a typical wildfire region; however, an increasingly warm and dry climate and model-based projections indicate that the number of forest fires are increasing. This study provides new insights into the drivers of forest fire occurrence in the Czech Republic, during the period 2006 to 2015, by focusing on climate, land cover, and human activity factors. The average annual number of forest fires during the study period was 728, with a median burned area of 0.01 ha. Forest fire incidence showed distinct spring (April) and summer (July to August) peaks, with median burned areas of 0.04 ha and 0.005 ha, respectively. Relationships between the predictors (climate data, forest-related data, socioeconomic data, and landscape-context data) and the number of forest fires in individual municipality districts were analyzed using Generalized Additive Models (GAM) on three time scales (annually, monthly, and during the summer season). The constructed GAMs explained 48.7 and 53.8% of forest fire variability when fire occurrence was analyzed on a monthly scale and during the summer season, respectively. On an annual scale, the models explained 71.4% of the observed forest fire variability. The number of forest fires was related to the number of residents and overnight tourists in the area. The effect of climate was manifested on monthly and summer season scales only, with warmer and drier conditions associated with higher forest fire frequency. A higher proportion of conifers and the length of the wildland–urban interface were also positively associated with forest fire occurrence. Forest fire occurrence was influenced by a combination of climatic, forest-related, and social activity factors. The effect of climate was most pronounced on a monthly scale, corresponding with the presence of two distinct seasonal peaks of forest fire occurrence. The significant effect of factors related to human activity suggests that measures to increase public awareness about fire risk and targeted activity regulation are essential in controlling the risk of fire occurrence in Central Europe. An increasing frequency of fire-conducive weather, forest structure transformations due to excessive tree mortality, and changing patterns of human activity on the landscape require permanent monitoring and assessment of possible shifts in forest fire risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterns, Drivers, and Multiscale Impacts of Wildland Fires)
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