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Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination
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Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination

A Special Issue of COVID (ISSN 2673-8112) belonging to the section "Human or Animal Coronaviruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 5378

Editor

Prof. Dr. Cheng-Wen Lin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan
Interests: viral pathogenesis; antiviral agents; viral diagnosis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue, “Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination”, aims to provide an integrated platform for advancing our understanding of coronavirus evolution and its ongoing impact on global health.

As SARS-CoV-2 continues to generate new variants with differing transmissibility, pathogenicity, and immune-evasion profiles, timely dissemination of research findings remains essential. This topic is critically important for informing preparedness, guiding therapeutic development—including the role of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), which continue to be a cornerstone of therapy for high-risk patients—and refining vaccination strategies. Furthermore, a comprehensive understanding of virus–host interactions—such as how variants bind to cellular receptors (e.g., ACE2), enter cells, and manipulate innate immune responses—is fundamental to elucidating the mechanisms that drive viral infection, pathogenesis, and immune evasion. By covering viral evolution, antiviral efficacy, immunological responses, and real-world vaccine performance, the Special Issue encourages multidisciplinary perspectives that can support evidence-based public health decision-making. Additionally, offering authors a broader venue for publishing ensures that high-quality work reaches the scientific community promptly and effectively. Through this focus, the Special Issue seeks to accelerate progress in understanding coronaviruses and mitigating their current and future threats.

You may choose our Joint Special Issue in Viruses.

Sincerely,

Prof. Dr. Cheng-Wen Lin
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. COVID is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • coronavirus variants
  • SARS-CoV-2 evolution
  • antivirals
  • vaccination
  • immune response
  • global health
  • viral pathogenesis
  • public health preparedness
  • host genomics
  • monoclonal antibodies

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 429 KB  
Article
Cost and Safety Perceptions as Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccination Intention in Saudi Arabia
by Nurah Alamro, Turki M. Alhakbani, Abdullah AlDhuwaihy and Abdulrahman AlOmar
COVID 2026, 6(7), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid6070126 - 17 Jul 2026
Viewed by 509
Abstract
Background: Public acceptance of vaccines during emerging infectious disease outbreaks is influenced by perceptions of safety, accessibility, and cost. Understanding these determinants during the early phase of a pandemic is important for informing vaccination policy and communication strategies. This study examined the [...] Read more.
Background: Public acceptance of vaccines during emerging infectious disease outbreaks is influenced by perceptions of safety, accessibility, and cost. Understanding these determinants during the early phase of a pandemic is important for informing vaccination policy and communication strategies. This study examined the role of vaccine cost and safety perceptions in shaping COVID-19 vaccination intention among adults in Saudi Arabia prior to national vaccine rollout. Methods: A cross-sectional electronic survey was conducted among adults residing in Saudi Arabia between August and September 2020. Participants were recruited through online distribution using social media and electronic communication channels. The questionnaire assessed socio-demographic characteristics, knowledge and perceptions regarding COVID-19, and intention to receive COVID-19 vaccination under five hypothetical scenarios reflecting vaccine cost and the availability of scientific safety and efficacy evidence. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with vaccination intention. Results: A total of 1293 respondents completed the survey. When vaccination was offered free of charge, 57.5% of participants reported that they would likely receive the vaccine. Vaccination intention declined as the hypothetical vaccine price increased, reaching 38.7% when the cost exceeded 100 SAR. Intention was lowest when vaccination was presented under conditions in which safety and efficacy evidence had not yet been confirmed. Age, gender, educational attainment, and prior seasonal influenza vaccination were associated with COVID-19 vaccination intention across several scenarios. Conclusions: Perceived vaccine affordability and confidence in scientific safety and efficacy evidence were important factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination intention during the early phase of the pandemic in Saudi Arabia. Providing vaccination without direct cost to recipients and communicating safety and efficacy evidence transparently may support public confidence and vaccine acceptance during future large-scale immunization campaigns. These findings should be interpreted as an early-pandemic baseline and should not be extrapolated to current post-rollout attitudes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination)
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11 pages, 226 KB  
Article
Pharmacological Profiles and Recovery Predictors in Severe COVID-19
by Heru Wijono, Fauna Herawati, Abdul Kadir Jaelani, Stefani Kartika Octavia, Dewi Ramdani, Nur Palestin Ayumuyas, Azminah, Kevin Kantono and Rika Yulia
COVID 2026, 6(6), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid6060103 - 10 Jun 2026
Viewed by 750
Abstract
This study analyses the pharmacological profiles of medications administered to critically ill COVID-19 patients to evaluate their efficacy regarding recovery rates and duration of hospitalization. The results demonstrate a significant difference in clinical outcomes. While the administration of Ceftazidime, Ceftriaxone, and Oseltamivir was [...] Read more.
This study analyses the pharmacological profiles of medications administered to critically ill COVID-19 patients to evaluate their efficacy regarding recovery rates and duration of hospitalization. The results demonstrate a significant difference in clinical outcomes. While the administration of Ceftazidime, Ceftriaxone, and Oseltamivir was associated with negative survival trends, Dexamethasone and Favipiravir were associated with a fourfold higher probability of survival in severe cases. Notably, no pharmacological intervention significantly reduced the length of hospital stay; instead, recovery duration was primarily influenced by comorbidities such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Furthermore, age and preexisting physiological conditions remained primary predictors of mortality. Observational analysis in our study for drug repurposing identified Amikacin, Remdesivir, and Rivaroxaban as potential therapeutic candidates. However, Dexamethasone was identified as the most effective treatment for recovery, likely due to a molecular structure with high potential binding affinity to the SARS-CoV-2 virus. These findings suggest that while specific repurposed drugs offer measurable benefits, patient history remains a critical determinant of outcomes, highlighting the necessity for further research to refine therapies against emerging viral pathogens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination)
21 pages, 18428 KB  
Article
Synthesis and Structural Characterization of Substituted 4-Alkynyloxazolones: In Silico Insights on the Interaction with SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein
by Morgana Maciél Oliveira, Yuri Clemente Andrade Sokolovicz, Marieli Friedrich Loreto, Gilson Zeni, Tales A. C. Goulart, Patrick Teixeira Campos, Isabella Burchardt Ferreira, Carlos Serpa, Otávio Augusto Chaves and Davi Fernando Back
COVID 2026, 6(6), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid6060099 - 4 Jun 2026
Viewed by 1134
Abstract
Research on oxazolones, particularly 4-alkynyloxazolones, has garnered increasing interest due to the presence of an alkynyl group, which facilitates molecular conjugation and enables diverse chemical modifications. In this study, three representative 4-alkynyloxazolone derivatives (L1–L3) were synthesized and structurally characterized [...] Read more.
Research on oxazolones, particularly 4-alkynyloxazolones, has garnered increasing interest due to the presence of an alkynyl group, which facilitates molecular conjugation and enables diverse chemical modifications. In this study, three representative 4-alkynyloxazolone derivatives (L1–L3) were synthesized and structurally characterized through single-crystal X-ray diffraction and computational analysis to obtain a reliable structure of L1–L3 to subsequently predict in silico interactions with the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike glycoprotein. The crystallographic results revealed high molecular planarity and multifurcated hydrogen bonding. Considering the obtained crystallographic structure, theoretical descriptors such as HOMO–LUMO energy gaps and electrostatic potential maps indicated that these compounds exhibit favorable electronic reactivity, particularly for L3, with favorable drug-like predictions. The lack of methoxy groups in L2 and L3 makes these compounds have lower predicted toxicity parameters than L1. Molecular docking calculations targeting SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein in three different feasible conformations in a biological matrix, i.e., three receptor-binding domains (RBD) in down conformation, two RBD in down and one in up conformation, as well as RBD bound to the human receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), suggested strong binding affinities and specific interactions with the RBD moiety, mainly in the up conformation. Overall, this work integrates crystallographic and computational approaches to establish the structural and in silico evaluation of spike-binding properties of early substituted 4-alkynyloxazolones, suggesting L3 as a candidate for future in vitro antiviral assays. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination)
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10 pages, 404 KB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of Instrument-Based SARS-CoV-2 Rapid Antigen Fluorescent Immunoassays for Point-of-Care Detection
by Vidya Keshav, Lesley Scott, Lucia Hans and Wendy Stevens
COVID 2026, 6(5), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid6050078 - 30 Apr 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 712
Abstract
Rapid antigen tests targeting SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein were essential for decentralised testing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Independent performance evaluations are essential to support regulatory approval and inform clinical implementation, particularly in resource-limited settings. This study presents a retrospective analytical and operational evaluation of [...] Read more.
Rapid antigen tests targeting SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein were essential for decentralised testing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Independent performance evaluations are essential to support regulatory approval and inform clinical implementation, particularly in resource-limited settings. This study presents a retrospective analytical and operational evaluation of two instrument-based fluorescent immunoassays (FIAs): the PCL COVID-19 Ag Rapid FIA and LumiraDx SARS-CoV-2 Ag Test. Analytical sensitivity was determined using recombinant nucleocapsid protein and viral cultures. Clinical performance was assessed using residual clinical specimens (n = 110) with RT-PCR as a reference, stratified by cycle threshold (Ct). Operational characteristics were assessed using a structured Likert framework. Overall sensitivity was 63% (51–73) for PCL and 95% (88–99) for LumiraDx. For Ct ≤ 25, sensitivity increased to 93% and 100%. Specificity was ≥97% for both. LumiraDx maintained sensitivity (83–94%) at Ct 25–30, whereas PCL did not detect any positives in this range. The limit of detection was 39 pM (PCL) and 0.6 pM (LumiraDx). Operational usability was high for both (90% PCL, 87% LumiraDx). LumiraDx showed higher analytical sensitivity across a broader viral load range, supporting primary diagnostic use, whereas PCL was limited to high viral loads. This evaluation provides a reproducible framework for rapid diagnostic assessment during emerging outbreaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination)
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27 pages, 7042 KB  
Article
Broad-Spectrum Inhibitor Discovery Targeting Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Proteins via 3D Structure-Based Virtual Screening and Molecular Dynamics
by Ebtisam Aldaais, Munthir Aldukhi, Hind Alotaibi, Heba Mofleh Alzabni, Subha Yegnaswamy and Nada F. Alahmady
COVID 2026, 6(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/covid6030036 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1393
Abstract
Rapid antigenic drift in the coronavirus spike protein motivates alternative antiviral strategies. We target the conserved nucleocapsid (N) protein—central to RNA binding, genome packaging, and replication—and perform a comparative, cross-species 3D structure-based in silico evaluation. A library of 494 compounds (natural, phytochemical, synthetic) [...] Read more.
Rapid antigenic drift in the coronavirus spike protein motivates alternative antiviral strategies. We target the conserved nucleocapsid (N) protein—central to RNA binding, genome packaging, and replication—and perform a comparative, cross-species 3D structure-based in silico evaluation. A library of 494 compounds (natural, phytochemical, synthetic) was docked with AutoDock Vina against the MERS-CoV N–terminal RNA–binding domain (NTD; PDB 7DYD) and the C–terminal dimerization domains (CTD) of SARS-CoV (2CJR) and SARS-CoV-2 (8R6E), reflecting the availability of high-resolution, functionally relevant domain structures for each virus. Top-ranked poses underwent ADME profiling and 100 ns GROMACS molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations. Myricetin 3-O-β-D-Galactopyranoside (myricetin) showed the most favorable predicted docking scores across targets (−8.9 kcal/mol, MERS–NTD; −10.1, SARS–CTD; −9.8, SARS-CoV-2 CTD). Curcumin showed moderate predicted affinity (−7.1 to −8.1), while MCC950 achieved consistently favorable docking score (−7.9 to −9.0). ADME results highlighted a trade-off: glycosylated flavonoids offered rich interaction networks but violated oral drug-likeness criteria (e.g., high TPSA), whereas MCC950 met Lipinski/Veber guidelines, supporting translational potential. MD analyses revealed ligand- and target-specific stability: myricetin maintained persistent binding over 100 ns in the SARS-CoV-2 CTD with lower RMSD than comparators; curcumin exhibited transient stability (~30 ns) in MERS- and SARS-bound complexes; MCC950 showed intermittent interactions. Collectively, these findings suggest that the conserved N protein RNA-binding groove represents a resistance-resilient target for broad-spectrum antiviral discovery. Natural flavonoids provide promising scaffolds for optimization, and MCC950 warrants further exploration given its drug-like profile. As this study is purely computational, the results are hypothesis-generating and should be validated via RNA-binding disruption assays, antiviral cell studies, and in vivo models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses: Variants, Antivirals, and Vaccination)
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