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Article

Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays

by
Bikash Malla
1,
Rajani Ghaju Shrestha
1,
Sarmila Tandukar
1,
Dinesh Bhandari
2,
Daisuke Inoue
3,
Kazunari Sei
4,
Yasuhiro Tanaka
5,
Jeevan B. Sherchand
2 and
Eiji Haramoto
6,*
1
Department of Natural, Biotic and Social Environment Engineering, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
2
Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, Maharajgunj, Kathmandu P.O. Box 1524, Nepal
3
Division of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
4
Department of Health Science, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan
5
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Yamanashi, 4-4-37 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8510, Japan
6
Interdisciplinary Center for River Basin Environment, University of Yamanashi, 4-3-11 Takeda, Kofu, Yamanashi 400-8511, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2018, 10(12), 1796; https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121796
Submission received: 28 September 2018 / Revised: 10 November 2018 / Accepted: 4 December 2018 / Published: 7 December 2018
(This article belongs to the Section Water Quality and Contamination)
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Abstract

This study identified the sources of fecal contamination in the groundwater of different land covers. A total of 300 groundwater samples were collected in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, in the dry (n = 152) and wet (n = 148) seasons of 2016. Fecal indicator bacteria were initially enumerated, and then fecal contamination sources were identified using human (BacHum), ruminant (BacR), and pig-associated (Pig2Bac) Bacteroidales quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays. Sixty-six percent (197/300) of the tested groundwater samples had Escherichia coli concentrations higher than the World Health Organization threshold for drinking (<1 most probable number/100 mL). The fecal contamination of the groundwater was of human (22%, 55/250), ruminant (11%, 28/250), and pig (3%, 8/250) origin. Deep tube wells were less likely to be positive for E. coli and fecal markers compared to shallow dug wells. The human fecal marker was more likely to be detected in sources from built-up as compared to agricultural areas (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.60, p = 0.002). Likewise, the ruminant fecal marker was more likely to be detected in sources from agricultural as compared to built-up areas (AOR = 2.90, p = 0.018). These findings suggest the preparation of mitigation strategies for controlling fecal pollution based on land cover and well types.
Keywords: drinking water source; fecal contamination; land cover; microbial source tracking; water quality drinking water source; fecal contamination; land cover; microbial source tracking; water quality

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MDPI and ACS Style

Malla, B.; Ghaju Shrestha, R.; Tandukar, S.; Bhandari, D.; Inoue, D.; Sei, K.; Tanaka, Y.; Sherchand, J.B.; Haramoto, E. Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays. Water 2018, 10, 1796. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121796

AMA Style

Malla B, Ghaju Shrestha R, Tandukar S, Bhandari D, Inoue D, Sei K, Tanaka Y, Sherchand JB, Haramoto E. Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays. Water. 2018; 10(12):1796. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121796

Chicago/Turabian Style

Malla, Bikash, Rajani Ghaju Shrestha, Sarmila Tandukar, Dinesh Bhandari, Daisuke Inoue, Kazunari Sei, Yasuhiro Tanaka, Jeevan B. Sherchand, and Eiji Haramoto. 2018. "Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays" Water 10, no. 12: 1796. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121796

APA Style

Malla, B., Ghaju Shrestha, R., Tandukar, S., Bhandari, D., Inoue, D., Sei, K., Tanaka, Y., Sherchand, J. B., & Haramoto, E. (2018). Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays. Water, 10(12), 1796. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121796

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