A Conceptual Framework for Student Retention in an Advanced Financial Accounting Course: Traditional vs. Blended Learning Environments

Abstract

At the beginning of the 21st century, rapid technological developments significantly impacted the field of education. As a result, university professors in recent years have been constantly searching and implementing teaching methods, such as blended learning, to increase the interest of their students and retain them in their courses. It is a matter of many academic discussions to create educational practices to reduce student dropout, especially in social sciences courses that are considered by students to be difficult subjects, such as accounting. The blended learning approach is based on constructivist theory and specifically on the Community of Inquiry model, where the educational experience of students is related to social, cognitive, and didactic presence, and it is orientated towards a more student-centred approach that maximises retention rates. The present study employs an exploratory blended-methods design. A questionnaire and individual interviews of students were used to collect data. The study was carried out in the context of an Advanced Financial Accounting course at a Greek university, through the implementation of an experiment with undergraduate students. Important findings include higher retention rates of undergraduate accounting students in the blended class compared to the traditional one, as the redesigning of content for the needs of blended learning, the incorporation of videos, the development of group work, and the good organisation of the course constitute the optimal mix for reducing student attrition.

1. Introduction

One of the main concerns among the academic community is student retention rates, which are often linked to the level of dropout in courses. It has been observed that some external factors that affect student retention are work pressure, lack of time, and technical problems in distance learning. Additional factors are internal obstacles related to courses, such as the classroom layout, the teachers’ communicability, and the level of difficulty of the courses. In recent years, the digital era has greatly affected the higher education sector, resulting in students being required to use digital technology in the educational process; however, they do not always have the necessary skills to use this technology in courses such as accounting [1,2]. In university institutions, a large proportion of students know how to use technology and are familiar with the digital environment; however, this does not necessarily mean that they are equally good participants in distance learning and blended learning environments [3]. Therefore, it is very likely that they will face issues related to computer use, especially at the beginning of the semester, and until they become familiar with the technology. This fact, in some cases, negatively causes students to abandon their academic path before even allowing themselves to feel comfortable with the switch to e-learning [4]. Furthermore, a lack of student interaction causes failure and eventual abandonment of e-courses. On the other hand, the difficulty in connecting learners is an internal factor that leads to their refusal to learn online [5]. There are cases where students are unable to continue their education in blended learning environments if they develop feelings of isolation during their studies [6]. However, if successful, blended learning can offer interaction and enable the active participation of students if they have the right equipment and internet connection [7]. It is therefore important to examine the quality of technology to ensure learning effectiveness in blended learning environments. Researchers report that student retention in traditional and blended classrooms is associated with student dropout, which is the interruption of a student’s physical and virtual presence in a course [8]. Specifically, “dropout” is a variable that refers to all students who drop out or fail to complete courses such as accounting within a given semester [9,10,11]. This study aims to determine the rate of dropout and retention among students using two different learning environments: blended learning and traditional learning. It also analyses the most important causes related to student dropout in each learning environment, based on which improvements can be proposed for the course in terms of lowering the dropout rate and retaining students. It also aims to make recommendations for teaching techniques and interventions that could hopefully lead to a successful improvement in student retention in more complex accounting courses.

This study was conducted as a case study, and it is valuable, since it was implemented in an Advanced Financial Accounting course with a clear, data-informed comparison of student retention and dropout rates between blended and conventional learning environments. The study provides an in-depth analysis that recognises its limits in terms of generalisability. This study distinguishes itself from previous studies in two ways: it combines quantitative data with students’ actual voices obtained via interviews, thus augmenting a highly technical topic that has been mainly neglected in retention studies. This blended-methods approach clarifies the daily difficulties that students encounter. Through an analysis of how blended learning particularly affects student persistence at a rigorous academic level, the study offers pragmatic, context-aware suggestions to enhance support, course design, and the wise application of educational technology. It also presents a conceptual framework that connects theory to actual application, providing a basis for future studies on how various learning environments affect student performance. The article is structured as follows. Section 2 goes over the body of current research on dropout and retention in both conventional and blended learning environments. Drawing on constructivism, the Community of Inquiry model, and connectivism, Section 3 presents the theoretical framework. Section 4 details the methodological approach and data collection techniques. Section 5 reports the results of the qualitative and quantitative stages of the research, and also presents the emerging conceptual framework. Section 6 explores the findings in comparison with previous studies. Section 7 ends with the limitations of the study and, moreover, with ideas for future research, policy recommendations, and teaching implications.

2. Literature Review

Over the last ten years, there has been growing interest in conducting studies to understand how the retention, engagement, and outcomes of students in higher education can be improved, especially in the field of accounting [12]. Several of these studies explore how different retention policies, instructional strategies, and technological interventions impact student success. They provide several insights that are helpful at an institutional level in reducing dropout rates and improving academic performance.

In a recent study conducted in 2025 by researchers Kassim, Marfo, and Abu [13], as part of a course in Financial Accounting, it was found that students in a blended learning environment have a greater understanding of educational content and are more likely to remain engaged in the classroom. The primary reason for this enhanced engagement is the integration of technology, which not only captures students’ interest, but also makes the learning experience more enjoyable. Additionally, collaborative group work within the blended classroom was identified as a significant factor in student retention. These findings were derived from a quantitative analysis of survey responses collected during the research.

According to Menifield et al. [14], higher education institutions are actively seeking ways to enhance diversity and equity among their student populations while simultaneously working to reduce student attrition rates. Through their observations, they identified that one viable solution to address these challenges, across various levels of study, including both undergraduate and graduate programmes, even in demanding subjects such as accounting, is the development and design of programmes that incorporate blended learning methodologies.

Recently, in 2023, Nieuwoudt and Pedler [15] conducted a study that captured the responses of undergraduate students to inquiries about whether they had considered leaving university without completing their degrees, and about what factors might lead them to such a decision. Additionally, while documenting their perspectives, the researchers focused on the reasons that ultimately motivated students to continue their studies. The students reported that family commitments, financial challenges, and a lack of time were some of the primary obstacles hindering their academic progress. However, they noted that courses offering greater flexibility, including those available for remote learning, played a crucial role in helping them to persist in their education. Furthermore, the students highlighted that hybrid learning significantly enhanced their understanding of accounting subjects through the use of video resources.

Hoyt, in 2023 [16], considered that university professors can contribute to their students not abandoning their courses and realising their visions for the future. This research examined the impact of various factors, and revealed that, overall, the more properly the entire university institution operates and provides high-quality educational services, the more likely it is that students will remain engaged with courses, even those that are most difficult for them, such as accounting.

A study conducted by Nurmalitasari et al. [17] aimed to analyse the factors associated with the dropout rate of Indonesian private university students. From the results, it was found that economic challenges, academic satisfaction, academic performance, and family economic status were major factors influencing the dropout rate. It was recommended that improvement in the quality of lecturers, academic support, and consideration of the financial difficulties faced by students are highly necessary to minimise attrition. In the Philippines, ref. [18] looked at retention and attrition in a BS Accountancy programme. Stringent grading policies and difficult qualifying examinations were seen as the major barriers to student success. Among the authors’ recommendations were increased tutorial support and shifting grading thresholds upwards to allow more students to pass without compromising academic standards.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, motivation and persistence became particularly crucial issues among academic staff. Drawing on Tinto’s model of student motivation and persistence, which emphasises the importance of academic and social integration as key factors influencing student retention, the authors of [19] applied the model to academic staff, and determined that motivation was affected particularly by self-efficacy, a sense of belonging, and perceptions of career relevance. The study confirmed that Tinto’s principles also apply to staff motivation during challenging times, as staff were similarly influenced by core elements. These pressures were heightened in the pandemic environment due to impacts on job security and the enrolment of international students, particularly in field-specific areas such as accounting. This study underlines the similarities between student and staff motivation, signalling that institutions need to take care of both in order to not lose their engagement during crises, but also in regular circumstances to maintain engagement and foster a resilient academic community.

Other approaches that have been attempted include course redesign to improve student success. For instance, ref. [7] reported how the redesign of an introductory Financial Accounting course at a large public university, with significant content reduction and integrated active-learning approaches, improved student learning and retention. In the same vein, ref. [3] also reported enhanced retention and performance by focusing on core competencies, continual review techniques, and the incorporation of engaging technologies. These findings are indicative of how pedagogical innovations might help to address problems of student retention and performance in accounting studies.

Technology in education plays a very important role, and the authors of [20] reviewed factors that affect persistence and dropout in online learning. They identified several demographic, course-related, technological, and motivational factors that influence the persistence or dropping out of students. From their review, it is crystal clear that well-designed courses with effective professor support and reliable technological infrastructure are urgently needed to improve online-course retention. Yu et al. [21] also conducted a meta-analysis on blended learning in 2022 and concluded that it tends to result in higher learning achievements and higher student satisfaction when compared with traditional learning methods. Blended learning during the pandemic allowed students to have more flexibility and interaction, hence leading to better engagement.

James et al. [22] present the results of a quasi-experimental design that tested the effectiveness of a gamified mobile application on student engagement and retention when integrated into an accounting course. The gamified mobile application (GMA) was able to raise engagement and completion rates for participants; however, the final learning outcomes did not show any significant difference between treatments. This study inferred that gamification features like leaderboards and frequent activities can raise motivational and participatory levels, thus signifying their possible potential in other learning environments.

As identified, student support within online and blended learning environments plays a very important role. Rahmani et al. [23], in their systematic review of dropout-influencing factors in online higher education, found that the most relevant factors were course design, technological challenges, and a shortage or deficiency of support services [24]. Hachey et al. [25] similarly revealed that online students had more challenges concerning time management and instructional quality compared to face-to-face learners. Thus, such findings imply that online students need specialised support provided by an institution in matters like time management and course design in order for dropout rates to be reduced and effective student engagement to be promoted.

Still more recently, Tight [26] examined this trend in the context of a broader movement away from retention-focused research toward the engagement of students. In this vein, he saw engagement as something for which higher education institutions are increasingly expected to take responsibility. He emphasised how any effective approach to the improvement of student success must be based upon an understanding of the reality of the student experience in all its complexity, embracing the academic, social, and personal dimensions of life. This perspective identifies that modern student life is complex, and that jobs, family commitments, and social activities are not separated from academic success.

One approach to addressing the problem of academic unpreparedness involves the use of bridging courses. Joynt [27] examined a four-day bridging course into introductory accounting. He discovered that this greatly improved student performance in early assessments and helped students to transition more effectively from high school to university. It is recommended that such courses should be offered for free, particularly within socioeconomically disadvantaged communities, in order to improve attendance and enable more effective student retention.

Other factors, such as instructional strategies, have been shown to play significant roles in improving learning outcomes. For example, ref. [28] shows how a guided-discovery instructional strategy significantly improved attitudes and retention of knowledge among Financial Accounting students. The strategy worked irrespective of gender and socio-economic status; hence, the researchers recommend its wider application in accounting education. This approach aligns with the findings of [29], which studied students’ perceptions in the context of online and blended learning environments. The authors noted that teacher support, especially in relation to content design, pedagogical strategies, and student–teacher interaction, was the strongest type of support for both online and blended learners. It also emerged from research that teacher engagement makes all the difference in improving retention and engagement, at least in online settings, where students feel most isolated.

Eze et al. [30] also researched the relationship between gender and the academic performance and retention of Financial Accounting students in Nigerian technical colleges. The results showed that male and female students benefitted equally from the Problem-Based teaching method, with remarkably increased post-test and retention scores compared to students taught through traditional lecture methods; this suggests that active and learning-centred approaches may serve to improve performance for an increasingly diverse student population.

Davis and Jones [31] examined the effects of a policy change regarding course attempts on withdrawal from an undergraduate accounting programme. They concluded that although the number of students who would be affected as a result of the new policy would be no more than a couple of percent, the problem of student withdrawal was increased several times. This research thus suggests that any policy-related adjustment must be cautiously worked out in order to avoid an unjustified decrease in programme completion rates.

In summary, based on the studies presented in this Literature Review Section, it is evident that the findings came mostly from questionnaires, and rarely from observations or interviews. Another important and limiting fact is that none of the studies used two or more methodological tools in a single study, which helps in triangulating the data. Also, in several studies, researchers focused on retention factors in general, and not on the teaching approach of blended learning, or they examined student retention at a predictive level, that is, what would help students in the future to prevent them dropping out of the class, and not what helps them in the present.

According to the above, the existing literature is considered insufficient in terms of the challenges identified in courses such as Advanced Financial Accounting. All of these research gaps are addressed and covered by the present study, which conducts a holistic investigation with a qualitative and quantitative methodological design. Notably, the present study not only identifies the influencing factors and other aspects of student retention in Financial Accounting courses, but also proposes evidence-based solutions involving a blended learning environment, which offers high levels of engagement and better understanding of accounting, as has already been established by the entire literature review.

Examining all of these points broadly, the following research questions were raised.

RQ: Is there a difference in students’ retention and dropout rates between traditional and blended learning environments for an Advanced Financial Accounting course?

RQ i: What are the main reasons contributing to student dropout?

RQ ii: What improvements need to be made to prevent students from dropping out and to retain them in the course?

3. Theoretical Framework

3.1. Social Constructivism

Constructivist theory is closely associated with blended learning, while in a broader context, learning theories form the basis for the expansion of knowledge [32,33]. Constructivism states that learners acquire knowledge as they try to understand their experiences. Constructivist theoretical models are used as frameworks for e-learning to describe the transformation of the individual’s experience into knowledge through a process of construction [33]. Research reports that the use of a constructivist approach to build a learning system improved the knowledge of learners [34]. An extension of constructivist theory is social learning, which argues that knowledge is constructed through social interaction, through which individuals can collaborate and communicate with peers and educators [35]. Learning can come from society, which is a primary determinant of an individual’s knowledge construction, through communities, collaborative learning, and teamwork. Learning is a social process, claims Vygotsky [36], which occurs first at the interpersonal level and then at the intrapsychological level. The idea of the “Zone of Proximal Development” emphasises the part played by scaffolding by peers or teachers in the learning process. According to Vygotsky’s thesis, learning depends on social and cultural surroundings; hence, digital tools are basic components for blended learning environments, as they help to enable cooperation and direction. Vygotsky’s theory largely supports issues of social interaction [37,38]. Learning is related to the world and individuals who can modify the knowledge they receive through social interaction, which contributes to the retention of students in the classroom during their studies at university institutions. Constructivism, and especially social constructivism, offers elements that contribute to the development of collaborative practices in modern society [39,40]. It supports blended learning, as a theory that focuses on online tools and environments, and at the same time, e-learning is based on a collaborative online educational environment. Also, social constructivism is considered to be the foundation for the integration of technology into the social sciences to allow education to be carried out in an online environment, facilitating interaction and active learning and increasing the retention rates of accounting students [41].

Recent research highlights just how valuable social constructivist theories are in creating inclusive and meaningful learning experiences across diverse educational settings. Nguyen and Le [42] show that when students work together, receive guided support, and learn in real-world, relatable contexts, they are more likely to retain new knowledge and develop a deeper understanding. In the field of accounting education, Musundwa [43] emphasises that using constructivist teaching methods not only boosts student engagement, but also promotes inclusion through reflective and student-centred learning. Building on this, Mishra [44] explains that learning becomes most effective when it occurs through social interaction, collaboration, and scaffolding, with teachers guiding students through real-life tasks within their Zone of Proximal Development, helping them to think critically and solve problems along the way.

3.2. Community of Inquiry

Community of Inquiry (C.o.I) is a concept that refers to a group consisting of a professor and a class of learners engaged in learning and/or research. The Community of Inquiry theory is a model developed by Garrison, Anderson, and Archer which interprets the process of learning in online environments through three interacting elements: cognitive presence, social presence, and instructional presence. The C.o.I model argues that effective online or blended learning requires the balanced presence of all three of these dimensions [45]. The Community of Inquiry is a constructivist model that identifies social, cognitive, and didactic presence to define and describe measurable elements that support the development of online learning communities [46]. Garrison et al. [41] argue that learning is meaningful when it takes place in a Community of Inquiry context, consisting of teachers and students, where everyone interacts through three basic building blocks: (a) cognitive presence, (b) social presence, and (c) didactic presence. Cognitive presence is defined as the extent to which learners can construct and affirm meaning, that is, knowledge [45]. Thus, learning begins with an activating event and expands through investigation and integration to end up in an expanded analysis. Cognitive presence has been linked to experiential learning, which causes a positive imprint on the educational process and arouses interest in the content of the course [47]. The concept of social presence originates from the work of communication theorists Short, Williams, and Christie [48], who argued that different educational media provide different opportunities for “social presence” and interaction through the use of computers and the Internet. Professors who used online discussions and forums found that their students felt that online discussion was more personal and direct compared to traditional classroom discussion, arguing that social presence was arguably better and enhanced student retention in the course. Instructional presence is defined as the planning, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the acquisition of learning outcomes [49]. According to research, learner satisfaction and student retention are greatly associated with the dynamics of the teaching presence [50,51,52].

Recent studies confirm the validity and applicability of the Community of Inquiry paradigm across many learning environments. Yandra et al. [53] found that online learning made accounting students happier when they had a strong feeling of social presence—feeling seen by, heard by, and connected with others. This was particularly relevant since it is suggested that active participation and peer interaction define success and motivation, transcending the impact of teaching presence. Guo [54] also confirmed the relevance of the C.o.I model across cultural borders and its capacity in assessing the quality of online and blended learning environments, showing high degrees of teaching, cognitive, and social presence reported by students in the US and the UK. Based on their discovery that a strong instructional presence favours student retention and success, improving engagement and lowering dropout rates, Rosser-Majors et al. [55] further underline the need for teaching presence. ElSayad [56] also underlined how careful integration of C.o.I dimensions improves students’ academic self-efficacy and satisfaction, increasing their motivation and, more importantly, their learning opportunities. Underlining the need for professional development to support faculty confidence and instructional effectiveness in online accounting education, Matt and Chang [57] found that accounting faculty members with more teaching self-efficacy felt more aligned with the C.o.I framework, especially in terms of soft-skill development.

3.3. Connectivism

This theory describes how people learn in the digital age through the exchange of information using the internet. The proponents of this theory, Siemens [58] and Downes [59], tried to explain that the internet and its applications have facilitated how people share information and learn in an era that is increasingly technologically advanced. This theory explains how digital technology, through blogs, wikis, discussion forums, social media, and email, can facilitate the educational process through the exchange of information. Specifically, learning begins when the student connects to the academic community (online) and shares knowledge with members of the community. The learning community here refers to those who have the same interests and encourage dialogue, information exchange, interaction, and discussions. That is, knowledge is shared in a network of connections that then share information and exchange opinions or concerns [60]. Connectivity, or connectivism, has a direct correlation with e-learning and promotes the digital age; it is inextricably linked to blended learning, which is a manifestation of modern technologies in the field of education. It supports e-learning in combination with traditional teaching, creating the conditions for the implementation of blended learning through the exchange of knowledge and information [61]. Digital educational tools are an integral part of educational technology, as knowledge is offered even through digital tools and devices, replacing the physical presence of teachers.

Recent studies show how connectivism offers a relevant and pragmatic viewpoint for understanding knowledge in the modern digital environment. It focuses on the relevance of digital networks, shared knowledge, and technologies in shaping the learning experience; thus, connectivism transcends conventional, individual-based theories, as Alam [62] clarifies. Khushk et al. [63] provide evidence for the connectivist theory, showing that real-time cooperation and meaningful knowledge-sharing are supported in hands-on learning environments, such as clinical settings. Combining constructivist methods with role models opens up many rich, interactive learning opportunities. This led Cabrejas [64] to highlight the need for teachers to preserve student enthusiasm in virtual classrooms. By means of open communication and constant support, teachers can assist students in negotiating demanding digital environments and can engage in apparently relevant and personal interactions to share their knowledge. From a connectivist perspective, this orientation links students to the pertinent tools, resources, and materials at the appropriate moment, thus motivating more learning.

The theories selected provide an explanatory background for understanding the factors that influence student dropout and retention. Social constructivism focuses on how social interaction enhances student engagement and retention in a course. C.o.I theory allows for the analysis of how cognitive, social, and instructional presence affect students’ experiences in blended learning environments. Finally, connectivity explains how technology and digital networks help to build learning communities and, by extension, enhance student retention in a course. Thus, the three theories support the research questions related to the causes of dropout and ways to improve teaching.

4. Methodology

Research strategies provide researchers with specific directions and procedures for the research design. Research approaches identify three main types of research design for social scientists: (a) quantitative, (b) qualitative, and (c) blended methods, with the latter combining the first two [65].

In research, blended methods are applied less frequently than quantitative methods, as they require more time for their validation and extensive methodological planning, and only 15% of blended methods cover the e-science discipline of education [66,67,68].

Combining methods provides a trade-off for the perceived weaknesses of any one method and resolves reliability and validity issues. In social research, there is the potential for four categories of triangulation: theoretical, data, researcher, and methodological. Data triangulation involves collecting data from different sources or in different time frames. Researcher triangulation refers to the collection of data on the same situation from different individuals, and then comparing the results [69,70]. In the present research, triangulation was carried out in three categories (methodological, theoretical, and data from different sources), with full alignment with the research questions.

More specifically, the present study was conducted in the spring semester of 2023 at a Greek university; it focused on two comparison groups (traditional and blended class) of undergraduate students, examining their retention, and was conducted as a case study. The main criterion for admission to the study was enrolment in the Advanced Financial Accounting course, and a random sampling procedure was used to assign participants to the two groups/classes. The study was conducted at the Department of Business Administration of the University of West Attica in Greece, and investigated the retention of students in the Advanced Financial Accounting course using the blended teaching approach. From the total population of students attending (179 students) the specific accounting course, 60 of them joined the experiment completely voluntarily (30 in the control group and 30 in the experimental group). All ethical issues were mitigated from the outset, and aspects such as the anonymity of the participants (the questionnaire was filled in using pseudo-identification, and the interviews were conducted under a code number) were safeguarded in order to not affect the performance and behaviour of the participants/students and the academic findings (there was complete impartiality), while at the same time, the academic regulations of the institution were respected, maintaining the validity and credibility of the scientific research. All the scientific research tools, such as the questionnaire given to the students (experimental and control group) and the interview questions, were approved in advance by the university’s research ethics committee. In addition, there was no bias or direct or indirect negative consequences in case students did not want to participate in the experiment.

The research had a quasi-experimental design; the use of even a very small sample in quasi-experimental designs in accounting education research is feasible and valid through proper procedures, as observed in the current research and thoroughly analysed.

Notably, quasi-experimental research is related to experimentation, where there are variable manipulations and corresponding measurements without the random assignment of subjects to the experimental conditions being compared, such as an experimental classroom and a control group. This research design is used by researchers to establish a causal relationship, but they do not randomly designate the experimental condition. Therefore, the only way to measure the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable is through a quasi-experimental design, even in the case of very small samples and populations [71].

However, not all relevant factors are automatically controlled by a quasi-experimental design. In this research, the quasi-experimental design was followed by comparing two classes: the experimental group, for which the intervention took place (blended environments), and the control group. These groups, unlike in experimental designs, were not equivalent, since students were enrolled in the two classes based on their own decision and their choice of which class they wished to participate in. The quasi-experimental method is one of the main quantitative research methods, where one set of variables is held constant (control group—transitional class), while the other set of variables (experimental—blended class) is measured as the subject of the experiment [72].

The intervention consisted of a blended teaching approach for the course of Pre-Advanced Financial Accounting.

Wiersma [72] claims that quasi-experimental research is considered successful when the researcher confirms that a change in a dependent variable is due to an independent variable, regardless of whether the sample used in the research is small. It is important to determine the cause of a phenomenon, which means that the results observed in the experiment are due to the cause [71].

The use of a very small sample in quasi-experimental designs in literacy education is scientifically accepted, as evidenced by studies by Sargent and Borthick [73] with 24 students, Pike et. al [74] with a total sample of 36 students, and Caruana et al. [75] with 40 students. Despite limitations, such as reduced external validity, the application of statistical methods combined with qualitative data enhances the validity of the findings.

It appears that the representation is also valid in the present study, with a population of 179 students and a sample of 60 people. The same applies to the interviews, where in contrast to other studies, a representative number of 14 students was used in the subset, while there was triangulation with the questionnaire (of 60 people) and the theoretical framework. Through the overall methodological design, it was ensured that there was no bias; instead, the tools used ensured excellent reliability and validity, with an overall Cronbach’s alpha index of 0.961.

In this study, quasi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted using a set of predetermined questions, with the researcher having a guide for the topics covered in the interview framework. This type of interview was chosen as it presented flexibility (a) in terms of modifying the content of the questions according to the interviewee, (b) in terms of going deeper into some topics when deemed appropriate for certain participants, and (c) in terms of the order in which the questions were asked.

Good preparation and planning were a prerequisite. As for the design of the qualitative interview, ontological and epistemological principles were necessary, which were linked to the main research questions of the investigation [76].

The data collection through interviews was conducted on a one-to-one co-participant basis. The recording was conducted using a special recording device (a digital battery/current recorder for recording in the research lab of the Business Administration Department), rather than a personal smartphone. It was necessary to keep the device well stored in a locked cabinet and to immediately save the audio files on a computer with codes and encryption. The files were then erased/deleted from the recording device, and a transcription process was undertaken by the researcher, word by word, to transform the spoken data into written data. The process of data storage involved keeping separate files:

A. Personal data: name, date of consent, date of interview, match to code.

Β. Research data: code and data.

The data was stored on a computer in the spaces mentioned above, which had a code, and it was considered necessary to encrypt and keep a separate file for each interview. In addition, the data was stored only by participant code, and not by participant name.

Thematic content analysis was carried out with the exclusive use of the codes assigned to each participant. Finally, the reporting of the results was conducted using phrases from the participants and only participant codes.

Thematic analysis is a method that helps to identify, analyse, and interpret recurring meanings and patterns in qualitative data in order to explain phenomena. It is a versatile approach that can be applied to many areas of the social sciences and is useful for identifying patterns related to participants’ experiences, opinions, and behaviours [77].

Thematic analysis involves the identification, analysis, and interpretation of themes or patterns in qualitative data. The process, according to Braun and Clarke [78], involves the following steps:

• Familiarity with the data;
• Familiarisation with the data;
• Coding;
• Theme development (coding);
• Theme development (theme review), theme review (theme development);
• Report writing.

In addition, coding was performed by identifying important data segments and assigning codes, and categorisation was performed by organising codes into categories or themes based on similarities or relationships, as detailed in the next section containing the results.

The individual interviews of the students were conducted according to the following steps:

Step 1: Drafting, at an initial stage, of general questions based on the literature review.

Step 2: Formulation and finalisation of the questions.

Step 3: Voluntary inclusion of interviewees.

Step 4: Conducting the interviews.

Step 5: Analysis of the interviews (thematic analysis).

The objectives of the individual interviews with the students were as follows:

• To explore the degree of retention of students in the classroom.
• To reveal the barriers to their retention in the class.
• To identify improvements suggested by the students to encourage their retention in the class.

Interviewee Participation:

Individual interviews of students in the experimental class (blended) and the control group were conducted with their voluntary consent to this process (tape-recording and transcription). The roles of the researchers were as follows:

• Stating the purpose of individual interviews.
• Explaining how the data would be used (for research purposes only, keeping students anonymous).
• Consent for recording.
• Encourage participants to freely express their views.

5. Results

5.1. Quantitative Data

Table 1. Gender distribution in each learning environment.

1 Gender—Class Crosstabulation
% Within Class
		Class		Total
		Traditional	Blended
Gender	Female	61%	77%	69%
	Male	39%	23%	31%
Total		100%	100%	100%

presents the gender distribution of the students across the two learning environments—traditional and blended—to identify any demographic imbalances that could influence retention.

Table 1 shows that female students constituted the majority in the traditional and blended classes, with percentages of 61% and 77%, respectively, and male students constituted 39% and 23%, respectively.

Table 2. Age distribution of students across traditional and blended classes.

2 Age—Class Crosstabulation
% Within Class
		Class		Total
		Traditional	Blended
Age	Up to 24	79%	87%	83%
	25–34	18%	13%	16%
	35–54	4%		2%
Total		100%	100%	100%

provides an overview of the age ranges of the students in both class types, offering insight into the predominant age group and its potential impact on the engagement and dropout rates. The following table indicates that in both classes, the age of the students was up to 24 years old, with a percentage of 79% in the traditional class and 87% in the blended class.

Table 3. Student retention and dropout rates by class type.

3 Retention—Class Crosstabulation
		Class		Total
		Traditional	Blended
Retention	NO	10%	0%	5.0%
	YES	90%	100%	95.0%
Total		100%	100%	100.0%

NO (dropped out)/YES (retained).

illustrates student retention and dropout rates for the traditional and blended learning classes, enabling a direct comparison of class participation continuity. In the traditional class, out of the total of 30 students, 3 dropped out and did not participate in the final exams, unlike in the blended class, where all the students were retained.

Table 4. Fisher’s Exact Test results for association between retention and learning environment.

Chi-Square Test
	Exact Sig.
Fisher’s Exact Test	0.119

presents the results of Fisher’s Exact Test to determine whether there was a statistically significant correlation between class type (traditional or blended) and student retention. Fisher’s Exact Test revealed no statistically significant association between the type of learning environment and student retention, p = 0.119. As the p-value was greater than the conventional alpha level of 0.05, the null hypothesis of independence between the two variables could not be rejected. This test was selected since it provides an exact p-value and is especially suitable for contingency tables with expected frequencies less than 5. Furthermore, small sample sizes are important. Since Fisher’s Exact Test generates exact results, unlike other tests that depend on estimations of expected values, it was appropriate for the situation of this study. The study found a significance level (α) of 0.05 before testing by applying accepted standards for hypothesis testing.

5.2. Qualitative Data

It is important to note that none of the students who participated in the interviews dropped out of the course.

Table 5. Demographics for traditional class.

Code	Responders	Gender	Age
R1	Responder 1	Female	19
R2	Responder 2	Female	19
R3	Responder 3	Female	19
R4	Responder 4	Female	20
R5	Responder 5	Female	26
R6	Responder 6	Male	19
R7	Responder 7	Male	23

outlines demographic information for the interview participants in the traditional class, providing context for interpreting their qualitative responses. The interviewees’ responses were analysed using a thematic approach, and the follow results are those for the traditional class.

Most students attended all the courses.

R2: “All five out of five courses”.

R5: “All the courses”.

R7: “All the courses, except one”.

Many students underlined how important distance learning is now, especially in view of easily available, well-organised teaching materials. Common problems were the regular sharing of notes and materials, as well as the need for a better course structure. One platform they often mentioned was Moodle, a widely used learning management system (LMS) in universities all around the world. Moodle gives teachers a way to upload materials, assign work, record comments, and maintain constant communication, whether or not classes take place live. Having everything available via Moodle changed everything for the students. Especially in blended or online learning environments where connection and clarity most count, it kept them on target, helped them to feel more supported, and enabled more full participation.

R1: “To have distance learning and within its framework to have more developed educational material”.

R2: “I believe that notes play a very important role, even though there were quite a few notes. Yes, and in Moodle, there should be more notes than lectures. It would just be better to have a little more note and to be able to collaborate with solved exercises and theory”.

R3: “I am generally very happy, I would just prefer the course to be more organized and to avoid confusion in this way”.

As interventions or improvements, the participants suggested the provision of more notes and exercises, as well as the implementation of more seminars. They believed that this would enable the possibility of coming into contact with the accounting profession realistically by listening to the opinions of experts and professionals. They also suggested that the start of classes could be later and not so early in the morning, and they considered cooperation between students to be important.

R1: “I think it would be better if there were more notes and exercises so that we could understand them more easily at home. Also, the tables would help us a lot.”

R2: “Well, in my opinion, I think that there should be more seminars. And I think that it helps a lot to hear the opinions of experts and experienced people. That is, to see anyone who is not a student after 10 or 20 years, how they live, and what knowledge they have. It is very interesting. Because we also make students dream about the future that we want to come true. Also, I think that it would be good to have a little more online friction because it is part of our daily lives, so I think that would be ideal now because students would also be able to enrich their knowledge better. Consequently, there should be more electronic and distance learning”.

R3: “Yes, I would like the classes to start a little later. Let’s say even at 10”.

R4: “Certainly, the energy in the classroom is very important, so it would be good for the teacher to ask more questions and not focus his interest only on those who know. On the contrary, he should get the students who know but also the students who do not know to act and collaborate more in the lesson”.

R6: “A visit outside the university or an additional seminar could perhaps help us more. But in general, the course is very good. I have no complaints. Just some additional seminars could facilitate the connection with the job market. In other words, it would be good for professionals to talk to us, so that the lessons are more practical and less theoretical, so that we do not get tired. In other words, the knowledge should be not only technical but also experiential. In this way, we can understand practically what the profession of accountant is and not just know it in theory”.

R7: “Some explanatory seminars could also be held, so that we can get the kids who don’t really understand accounting or who are embarrassed to say that they don’t understand into the mood. In this way, we can get them into the mood too”.

Thematic analysis helped us to examine the qualitative material obtained from the interviews. From the coding of student responses in the traditional classroom group, three main themes surfaced: (a) participation and attendance in the course; (b) required elements for improving learning outcomes and avoiding dropout; and (c) suggested interventions for enhancing learning outcomes and satisfaction. These categories mirror students’ opinions of the pedagogical and structural components influencing their academic experience.

Table 6. Thematic categories and codes—traditional class.

Themes	Codes Merging
Attendance of Lessons	All lessons All except one Absence in three lessons
Factors for Improving Learning Outcomes, Preventing Dropout, and Enhancing Retention in the Classroom	Distance learning Developed educational material More notes from lectures Collaboration with solved exercises Better-organised course
Interventions/Improvements to Enhance Student Engagement and Satisfaction	Exercises More seminars Expert and experienced opinion Online interaction Increased use of e-learning and distance learning Later start time for classes More questions Off-campus visits Additional workshops Experiential learning Explanatory seminars

below shows the thematic categories and combined codes that surfaced from the study, highlighting the areas on which students focused the most.

Table 6 summarises the thematic categories and merged codes derived from the qualitative interviews with traditional class students, highlighting their experiences and suggestions for improving the course. The table presents broader thematic units based on the codes that emerged from the students’ responses, and also a merger of the specific codes for the fourth research question.

Table 7. Demographics for blended class.

Code	Responders	Gender	Age
R8	Responder 8	Female	18
R9	Responder 9	Female	19
R10	Responder 10	Female	19
R11	Responder 11	Female	22
R12	Responder 12	Female	24
R13	Responder 13	Male	18
R14	Responder 14	Male	25

presents the demographics of the interviewed students from the blended learning class, supporting the interpretation of their perspectives. The interviewees’ responses were analysed using a thematic approach, and the following results are for the blended class.

It is noteworthy that the students attended all the sessions, as the majority of the students in the blended class did not miss any.

R1: “All the courses”.

R3: “I have not missed any”.

R7: “Almost all, except one”.

Distance learning made it easier to deal with various problems, and consequently to retain students in the class.

R3: “Of course, with distance learning, I was able to cover various academic problems and not have absences.”

R5: “If the lessons were only in person, most of us would face serious problems during the course.”

The most important factors identified for improving learning outcomes were as follows:

• Blended learning;
• Enriched educational content;
• Interaction;
• Immediate feedback;
• Experiential learning;
• Moodle;
• Innovative practices;
• Group work.

R1: “Blended learning definitely contributes a lot and I should point out what I said before, I wish all students had this opportunity to follow the blended class, in an interactive and experiential way”.

R3: “I think that blended learning helped a lot. Individual assignments were a very good option through this process. I also consider group assignments important”.

R4: “Moodle definitely helped more, it had enriched educational material with immediate feedback and interaction. Also, watching videos helped a lot in reviewing the lesson because many people do not remember the lesson or do not have the opportunity to watch it in person, so it is another way for them to be able to refer to it”. Due to their satisfaction with the teacher, the interventions they would make are minimal, with their interest focused on this question, too, on the utilization of blended learning and the flipped classroom.

R2: “For this particular course, I have nothing to note, I have no comment, the only thing I would suggest would be that the flipped classroom and blended learning, apart from accounting, should also be available in other courses.”

R6: “It’s not exactly an improvement, I simply suggest that distance learning courses be held more often because in this way many problems can be solved.”

R7: “There should definitely be videos during the lesson. That is, where the teacher solves the exercise on the board, some videos should also be utilized at the same time.”

Three main themes emerged from the answers of students in the blended classroom group: (a) their regular course attendance; (b) the part that blended learning played in helping them to stay on track; and (c) particular ideas for making the course more interesting and effective. The flexibility, interactive opportunities, and easy access to practical resources via Moodle and video materials that the combined approach offered were the aspects that appealed most to students. These elements seemed to truly affect their level of perceived support and participation.

Table 8. Thematic categories and codes—blended class.

Themes	Codes Merging
Attendance of Lessons	All lessons
The Impact of the Blended Learning Approach on Preventing Classroom Dropout	Addressing various issues Face-to-face challenges
Factors for Improving Learning Outcomes, Preventing Dropout, and Enhancing Retention	Flipped classroom Blended learning Interaction Experiential learning Immediate feedback Moodle Video monitoring Repetition
Interventions/Improvements to Increase Student Engagement and Satisfaction	Flipped classroom Blended learning for all subjects Distance learning Video

captures these key areas of interest and shows what students most appreciated in their educational process.

Table 8 shows the main thematic categories and associated codes from the interviews with blended class students, focusing on their feedback regarding blended learning and course enhancements. The broader thematic units according to the codes that emerged are listed in the following table.

These thematic categories not only draw attention to recurring trends, but also enable a more in-depth knowledge of how students assessed and experienced the several learning environments. By means of thematic coding, open-ended qualitative data could be interpreted in a disciplined manner, thus supporting the triangulation of these results with the quantitative ones.

5.3. Proposed Conceptual Framework

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks are essential tools in research, providing a foundation for understanding phenomena, shaping research designs, and guiding data interpretation. Despite their significance, they are often underexplained in research texts, leaving many researchers, especially novices, confused about their proper application [61]. Developing a framework can be challenging, especially for emerging researchers, due to limited guidance in research methods [79].

Theoretical frameworks are rooted in established theories and offer broad applicability across various research contexts, whereas conceptual frameworks are study-specific, emerging from the synthesis of literature and data. Conceptual frameworks provide a network of interconnected concepts, offering an interpretive rather than a predictive understanding of social realities [80,81]. While theoretical frameworks inform the development of conceptual frameworks, the latter focus on tailoring the research process to a specific context, often serving as a springboard for further studies or theory development [82,83].

Both frameworks play a critical role in structuring research by clarifying key variables, shaping methodology, and providing a lens for interpreting findings. They ensure coherence and rigour in the research process, addressing common concerns like trustworthiness and relevance [84,85]. However, they also limit researchers’ perspectives, emphasising certain aspects while potentially overlooking others [81].

Developing frameworks is a challenging process, especially for emerging researchers, due to limited guidance in research methods. A conceptual framework is typically placed at the end of the literature review, consolidating insights and clarifying relationships between variables to guide the study [79]. Methods like the six-step Systematic Thematic Analysis Process Model enhance the development of conceptual frameworks by integrating inductive and deductive approaches, providing structured steps to move from raw data to a robust conceptual model [85].

Frameworks can adapt to different research contexts. For instance, the MERITS Plus model integrates narrative analysis with Bourdieu’s thinking tools to analyse learner identity transitions, adding depth and flexibility to account for the dynamic nature of identity [86].

Despite their utility, the lack of explicit discussion and clear definitions in research texts contributes to the mystification of frameworks. To demystify these concepts, research texts should include dedicated sections on frameworks, their development, and their practical application. Diagrammatic models can aid understanding, and ongoing discussions about distinctions and overlaps between concepts and theories should be encouraged. Frameworks should be seen as tools for support, not as obstacles [87].

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks are integral to conducting rigorous, coherent research. They provide structure and focus, guiding researchers from problem formulation to analysis and interpretation. By emphasising clarity, flexibility, and adaptability, these frameworks enable researchers to address complex phenomena and contribute meaningfully to knowledge production [80,82,83].

The proposed conceptual framework expands on these principles by synthesising theoretical insight and methodological rigour into a cohesive structure through which the research problem can be effectively investigated. Attention to coherence is given in that all of the components—literature, variables, and research questions—logically fit and are mutually reinforcing. This framework incorporates both theoretical constructs and empirical findings, hence allowing for an in-depth exploration of the research topic, beyond superficial observation, to bring out patterns and relationships. The design is such that, along with making the study’s foundation strong, it also meets the dual goals of guiding the research process and forming actionable insights, as recommended by [79]. Moreover, the differentiation between theoretical frameworks as broad constructs and conceptual frameworks as study-specific guides provides a framework that integrates diverse knowledge systems with specificity to the objectives of the study. This conceptual framework indicates that the literature, the theoretical framework, and data represent factors in determining retention, dropout, and engagement by students in BL versus TR learning environments. It starts with a critical overview of the four major influences: institutional and policy factors, instructional and pedagogical strategies, technological and environmental factors, and students’ characteristics, providing the groundwork for the present study.

The framework utilises the educational theories of constructivism and connectivism, along with the Community of Inquiry model, to examine how the cognitive, social, and teaching presence shape engagement and retention in each learning format. These analyses are supported by both quantitative and qualitative data for a blended-methods approach.

Independent variables include demographics, predisposition, engagement, self-efficacy, prior knowledge, and C.O.I elements, while dependent variables are student retention, dropout, and engagement factors. The framework compares BL and TR environments to identify specific factors affecting outcomes.

Personal, academic, institutional, and social factors serve as the critical determinants of dropout. Correspondingly, proposed strategies to achieve retention include academic support, improvements in instruction, and readily available technology. Therefore, this model provides a planned framework through which to examine how BL and TR environments impact student success.

This study was not designed in advance; its conceptual framework developed naturally from the data via the process of thematic analysis, along with insights derived from the quantitative results. This is not a theoretical model based just on the literature; this research-driven construction is anchored in what was really observed and discovered during the study. This approach reflects Shikalepo’s [80] point of view, who emphasises that such frameworks reflect the final conceptual result of the research process, instead of presenting a framework found in the literature review.

Combining the findings of the statistical analysis with the themes that emerged from student interviews, the framework catches the complex network of elements—personal background, institutional context, teaching strategies, and technological influences—that affect student engagement, retention, and dropout in both blended and traditional classroom environments. Especially crucial in determining learning opportunities were key educational models, including the Community of Inquiry model and concepts from the constructivist and connectivist theories, as well as students’ demographic and motivating factors.

Makhathini et al. [88] also underline that a conceptual framework should help to define how the research was conducted, displaying the key variables, how they relate to one another, and how they link to the research questions. This method provides a prism through which interactions among significant variables, such as engagement, predisposition, and prior knowledge on the one hand, and results like retention and dropout on the other hand, may be better understood. It also exactly compiles all the analytical findings. Beyond this study, the structure might be a useful guide for future studies on related subjects.

Significantly, Figure 1 serves as more than just a theoretical visual summary. Rather, it presents a graphic map of the results, illustrating the interactions among several elements in the different learning environments. Every bit of the framework has been derived from actual data, since its logical consistency follows empirical consistency. Since it evolved from the data, supported by a comprehensive blended-methods approach, and was not designed before the study began, it is included following the presentation of the results.

This emergent framework was developed specifically for the demands of this research and in the specific environment. It presents the reality of a quasi-experimental design and the students involved, which means that the proposed framework could not be implemented in every research setting. For all of the above reasons, this framework has been placed in the Results Section, as it can be considered a result of the research process, rather than a pre-existing theory.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

This study examined whether there was a difference in student retention and dropout rates between traditional and blended learning environments in an Advanced Financial Accounting course taught in the first year at a Greek university institution. In addition, the main reasons that contributed to student dropout were investigated and formulated, as they provided suggestions for ways to prevent dropout and promote student retention in the course. The findings of the study are consistent in several respects with previous studies that have been conducted. More specifically, it was found that in the blended teaching approach to the accounting course, there were improved rates of student engagement and participation. An important aspect is the evaluation of the effectiveness of the blended class in terms of improving the dedication and self-efficacy of the students [24]. There is also the view that educational technology increases student retention in the classroom [14].

Cammayo and Gonzales [18], in their study, argued that student retention depends on the aspect of additional educational activities and specialised accounting seminars implemented during their studies. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were significant pressures that increased and shifted to academic areas, especially in specific fields such as accounting [19]. Researchers have stated that significant incentives (such as the integration of technology in teaching) should be given by university institutions so that they do not incur losses during pandemic crises. The researchers who conducted the present study claim the same. An important role in student retention is played by the redesign of introductory accounting courses, particularly through the implementation of the blended learning approach [7].

Hybrid teaching solutions with advanced educational technology have been found to dramatically increase undergraduate student retention rates [20]. Researchers have particularly acknowledged that blended learning during the pandemic offered flexibility and increased the rates of interaction, enhancing students’ commitment [21].

Several students have reported considered stopping their studies due to work and family commitments, but have stated that blended learning was the reason they remained in the classroom [15].

Higher education was significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the integration of technology with the implementation of the blended learning approach set a new foundation, as it was found that this method contributes to the retention of accounting students and enable equal opportunities for attendance for all, without exception. It can be observed that even after the pandemic era, many universities are still adopting blended programmes [88].

The same was found in a recent study by Kassim, Marfo, and Abu [13] on blended learning for Financial Accounting, where through using technology for group projects, students were able to achieve higher learning outcomes and retention in the course. It can be seen in a broader context that the contribution of this teaching approach leaves a positive imprint and enhances the retention of students to an optimal degree, even in difficult periods such as the pandemic.

On the other hand, students have also expressed opinions that when they feel a sense of isolation during their studies, there is a chance that they will interrupt their studies [6]. The same can happen if they are not familiar with technology and do not feel comfortable when transitioning to an electronic classroom [4]. Scholars report that technological equipment and connectivity can affect student success in blended learning environments [7].

As for the theoretical framework as a whole, the theories chosen by the researchers of this study are perfectly correlated with the factors and the conceptual field of student retention, as on the one hand, social constructivism explains that through social interaction, their retention is improved, and on the other hand, Community of Inquiry optimally promotes the educational experience in blended learning environments. Added to these two theories is connectivism, which is linked to the current digital age and the contemporary challenges of students who are directly dependent on it. Taken together, all three theories interact with the research questions, which correlate the main causes of student attrition and ways to improve them.

More specifically, Musundwa [43] believes that constructivist learning models, such as blended teaching, have a student-centred nature, thus encouraging student retention in accounting courses. The same results were found in research by Nguyen and Le [42] and Mishra [44], as they explained that social interaction contributes to a sense of belonging, and if students feel that they are part of the group, this encourages their retention in accounting courses, especially those involving blended environments. The implementation of the C.o.I model plays a key role in the levels of academic self-efficacy and retention of students, while also helping them in their retention and understanding of Financial Accounting through interactive digital exercises [56]. Guo supports this perspective in his research conducted in 2025, further emphasising the importance of blended learning [55].

All these elements are confirmed by the most modern theory of connectivism, which is inextricably linked to digital learning and virtual classrooms, which offer unique educational experiences to students in the 21st century and motivate them to continue their studies in accounting courses with great interest [64]. The development of courses in a constructivist environment promotes new teaching methods, such as blended learning, which is considered by a large proportion of students to be more flexible, and this contributes to preventing them from dropping out [23].

In this study, it was shown that the dropout rate in the traditional classroom was 10%, while in the blended classroom, it was 0. In summary, the most important factors for not dropping out were the dynamics of distance learning, content redesign, videos, the development of group work, and the good organisation of the course.

A crucial aspect is the reasons that students in the traditional classroom believe can lead them to drop out. Specifically, they believe that the demands of the course, lack of interest, external factors such as strikes, organisational issues (such as class time), and personal issues negatively affect their retention in a class. In addition, a strong lack of interaction with electronic learning platforms and effort–result mismatch were important aspects that led to students contemplating dropping out of the course.

The students in the blended class believed that if there was a bad climate or the teacher’s behaviour was uninspiring, then they might be motivated to drop out of the class. The dimensions of educational material, a positive classroom environment, and flexible learning through blended environments were motivations for retention in the class. The satisfaction they felt, along with the other factors mentioned above, contributed to the retention of the participants in the experimental class.

In the context of the findings of this research, the development of a conceptual framework is proposed that can guide future studies and practical applications. The conceptual framework offers a comprehensive way of relating theoretical concepts to practical applications, helping to deepen the understanding of the role of the learning environment in student success. It provides a clear and structured basis for the creation of educational interventions aimed at improving learning outcomes. This framework, based on evidence, connects theory with practice and is a valuable tool for the further development of educational research and practice.

7. Limitations and Further Research

There are a few rather significant limitations to this study. First of all, given that only 8% of all participants took part in the interviews, the qualitative results do not fairly depict the larger student body. Though the study focused on how teaching strategies affect student retention, it neglected other possible elements, like students’ personal motivation, financial problems, or the degree of institutional support. These factors could play a key role in dropout decisions. Future research should consider ways to account for or control these elements—perhaps through blended methods or longer-term studies—to better understand the true impact of different teaching approaches. Finally, even though student retention has been studied in general, there is still a lack of in-depth research in accounting education, particularly for core subjects like Financial Accounting. Expanding future studies to include more students and different countries could help to draw clearer, more meaningful conclusions that respond to both educational goals and the expectations of the job market.