Empowering Smallholder Farmers by Integrating Participatory Research and Establishing Village-Based Forage Seed Enterprises to Enhance On-Farm Productivity and Local Seed Supply

Abstract

Food and nutritional insecurity, alongside poverty, remain formidable challenges within smallholder crop–livestock mixed farming systems, predominantly found in Asia and Africa, which are the primary focus of this review. Livestock stands as a crucial asset in these systems, providing food and income for families. However, livestock productivity is often constrained by poor-quality feed, predominantly composed of crop residues. This is compounded by limited access to high-quality forage seeds and the misconception that limited land and water resources should be devoted to cereal production. Furthermore, formal seed supply chains for forages are often underdeveloped or non-existent, making it difficult for farmers to access quality seed. The integration of high-quality legume forages into these systems offers a cost-effective and sustainable solution for improving livestock productivity. These forages provide more nutritious feed and enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, helping to reduce farmers’ reliance on expensive commercial feeds and fertilizers. Success in the adoption of improved forage varieties hinges on participatory approaches that actively engage farmers in varietal selection and evaluation. Such collaboration leads to better adoption rates and increases on-farm productivity, facilitating the establishment of village-based forage seed enterprises (VBFSEs). These enterprises offer a reliable local seed supply of quality seeds, reducing farmers’ dependency on inconsistent national and international seed suppliers. These initiatives not only improve the production of high-quality forage and livestock productivity but also create opportunities for income diversification, contributing to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. By fostering collaboration and sustainable practices, policymakers and stakeholders, particularly farmers, can build more resilient agricultural systems that support food security and poverty alleviation in rural communities.

1. Background

Crop–livestock mixed farming systems are pivotal to the agricultural landscape, offering profitable opportunities for rural communities of Asia and Africa to enhance their livelihoods [1,2]. The success and profitability of these systems largely depend on the availability of green feed, which is essential for sustainable livestock production. Livestock production in these regions is diverse and can be classified into four main systems: livestock-only, rainfed, irrigated, and landless farming systems [2]. These production systems have evolved in response to regional climate variations and socio-economic factors, leading to an increasing demand for a continual supply of high-quality forage and forage seed to sustain production [3,4].

The success of these systems is heavily reliant on the availability of good-quality water, whether through rainfall or irrigation. These systems produce staple crops such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize/corn (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), alongside forages like berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum), oat (Avena sativa), millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and are often integrated with livestock production to support the food and nutritional requirements of rural communities [5]. Additionally, grasses such as Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana), and legume crops like lucerne (Medicago sativa), black gram (Vigna mungo) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), are commonly cultivated in regions like Bangladesh and Kenya [4,6]. They are often conserved and stored as hay or silage, and used for livestock feeding [7].

Small-scale farmers frequently adopt crop–animal production systems, integrating crops and livestock to meet their food and income needs [8]. Crops provide sustenance (food and nutrition) for both the family and livestock, generating cash flow, while livestock offer food, draft power, and financial security during emergencies. A significant portion of ruminants in developing countries (approximately 85%) are raised on mixed farms [5]. These smallholder mixed farming systems dominate in areas where the average landholding is around 2 hectares, with three-quarters of the land dedicated to growing staple crops and the remainder to cultivating forage crops for livestock feed [9]. A recent study in Kenya by Ayuko et al. [4] revealed significant financial advantages of growing and feeding forage to livestock compared to grazing. Cain, et al. [10] further emphasized the role of livestock enterprises in poverty alleviation among smallholder farmers in these mixed farming systems.

Growing legume forages in these smallholder farms plays a crucial role in enhancing on-farm agricultural sustainability by boosting livestock production, improving soil health and fertility, promoting biodiversity, and reducing economic risk through diversification [9]. However, expanding the area to cultivate forage crops faces challenges, such as competition with staple crops for land and water, and land degradation due to urbanization and population rise [11]. Despite these challenges, increasing forage production is feasible through the adoption of improved-variety seed, intercropping techniques, and, notably, the integration of legume forages into crop rotations [12]. Improved varieties of seeds or germplasm are bred to deliver desirable traits like higher yields, superior nutrition [13], and greater resistance to drought and diseases [14] than traditional landraces. These advancements are typically the outcome of targeted breeding programs led by researchers aiming to enhance crop productivity and strengthen food security [15,16,17]. The development process often involves breeding techniques like varietal selection and hybridization, carried out under rigorous certification and registration protocols [18,19,20].

Natural disasters and climate change significantly threaten global agriculture, impacting smallholder farmers, and thus endangering food security and livelihoods. Climate-related events have caused 50% of agriculture losses worldwide in the last 15 years, with droughts and extreme temperatures accounting for 45% of the damage [5]. In Africa, reduced rainfall and degraded rangelands exacerbate water scarcity, leading to poor-quality forage and declining livestock populations during drought years [12]. Urbanization further compounds these challenges, shrinking the availability of fertile land, which is often repurposed for urban development [21].

Addressing these challenges is crucial for enhancing food security, sustainability, and smallholder farmers’ livelihoods. This review highlights the importance of crop–livestock production systems for rural development and emphasizes the need for farmer-participatory research to sustain smallholders, particularly in the face of climate variability. The integration of farmer-led seed production systems with formal seed supply chains offers opportunities for improving both systems, benefiting all stakeholders including farmers. The area of interest here is commercial forage and seed production facilitated by the establishment of VBFSEs, which have been designed to produce and market high-quality forage and seeds to smallholder farming communities at the village level. Additionally, this paper aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, particularly goals 1, 2 and 17, which aim to increase crop production and supply, achieve food security, and improve nutrition by eliminating poverty (by raising incomes) and enhancing rural livelihoods through public–private partnerships for sustainable agricultural development [22].

2. Understanding Smallholder Farmers’ Decision-Making in Diverse Crop–Livestock Mixed Farming Systems

Small-scale farming systems, predominantly operated by smallholder farmers, are the cornerstone of agricultural systems. Globally, there are about 600 million smallholder farmers (<2 ha land), with Asia hosting the majority with 450 million, followed by Africa with 33 million. These smallholders produce over one-third (35%) of the world’s food and significantly contribute to food security, supplying 80% of the food consumed [5]. Integrated crop–livestock systems employ diverse agricultural practices to enhance mutual benefit. By combining crop cultivation with livestock rearing on the same farm, these systems promote efficient nutrient cycling, resource use, and waste reduction [10,23]. Crop residues serve as livestock feed, while livestock manure enriches soil fertility, subsequently boosting crop yields [1,24]. This interdependence supports farm resilience, optimizes land and labor use, and contributes to both food and income security [2,25]. Livestock farming plays a crucial role in these systems, engaging about 240 million people, with around 133 million smallholder farmers owning at least one milking animal. Livestock farming supports the livelihoods of around 1 billion people globally [5,6].

Livestock is integral to the profitability and sustainability of these farming systems, providing essential food resources for domestic consumption, recycling and adding vital nutrients to the soil, and generating income and employment opportunities for local communities [8,10,26]. The integration of livestock and forage production offers flexibility in income generation, which is particularly beneficial for risk-averse farmers [27], and therefore dominates smallholder farming systems in both Asia [1] and Africa [4,23]. With a growing population, future increases in the demand for milk and meat are expected to be met through improvements in livestock productivity within these farming systems. The FAO [5] estimates that global liquid milk production needs to rise from 718 to 865 million tonnes by 2030 to meet the nutritional demands of the population. Consequently, a systematic analysis of small-scale crop and livestock production enterprises, focusing on financial and physical aspects, is essential to identify appropriate interventions to improve feed production and improve feeding efficiencies to enhance on-farm productivity [3,6].

Crop residues such as wheat, rice and maize straws, sugarcane tops, and root crop vines serve as the primary source of animal feed in crop–livestock mixed farming systems. For instance, about 46% of crop residues in Pakistan (40 million tonnes), 51% in Nepal, 66% in India (350 million tonnes), and 70–90% in Bangladesh are utilized annually for livestock feeding [1]. Similar rates of utilization are observed in Kenya (47%), Rwanda (65%) [28], and sub-Saharan Africa (70%) [29]. This reliance is often due to the limited resources (both land and capital) available to smallholder farmers for growing high-quality roughages [7,10,28,30]. Resource-poor farmers commonly face challenges in accessing quality forage, particularly during periods of feed shortage, and often resort to feeding crop residues, which are readily available at little to no cost. However, the growing demand for crop residues has led to rising prices and scarcity [31]. These residues often contain higher protein levels (around 10%) compared to rangeland biomass, which typically contains only 5% crude protein. This makes crop residues a valuable feed source, especially during dry seasons, heavy rainfall events, or when rangeland productivity declines [12]. Globally, about 60% of all crop residues produced are fed to livestock in crop–livestock mixed farming systems, with the majority (47%) coming from cereals [24].

Another important source of animal feed in agriculture–forestry–livestock regions comes from forests and rangelands, where farmers utilize forage from trees and shrubs (stall-feeding) and grasses (grazing). However, the extraction of forage from these areas often leads to degradation, exacerbating issues of land deterioration and deforestation [4,12]. Globally, an estimated 40% of the world’s land has been degraded since the start of this century [5]. In South Asian countries such as Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, agroforestry has a long-standing history of providing feed for livestock, providing both conservation and economic benefits. Nonetheless, increased tree density in these regions has often reduced crop yields and diminished profitable farmland [11].

Smallholder mixed farming systems vary in their level of intensification, largely determined by access to inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and mechanization [10,23,25]. Resource-poor farmers often operate low-input systems using own-saved seed, organic manure, family labor, and rainfed cultivation [4,32], while market-oriented farms adopt improved cultivars, inorganic fertilizers and basic mechanization to boost yields [13,33]. Conventional and organic practices often coexist within the same regions [9,34]. Organic farming faces challenges like shortages of organic seed, limited varietal options, high input costs and underdeveloped supply chains [2,4], while conventional systems struggle with affordability and timely access to quality inputs [35,36]. Furthermore, certain breeding methods such as mutagenesis or genetic modification are incompatible with organic standards, further limiting varietal choices for organic farmers [19]. Addressing these distinct challenges is essential to building inclusive forage seed systems that support both organic and conventional smallholder farmers across diverse agroecological zones.

Cultivating legume forages on small landholdings has proven more effective, as these crops not only provide high-quality feed for livestock but also enrich soil fertility [37], and mitigate the risk of losing grain yields due to pests and disease [11]. Additionally, incorporating legume forages into crop rotations can help minimize pressures from pests, diseases, and weeds, through the diversification of crops [9,38]. In some cases, co-locating sorghum with trees has demonstrated increased yields due to favorable micro-climate effects [34]. Therefore, the careful integration of agriculture, forestry, and livestock systems can lead to a sustainable supply of high-quality forage. This approach further supports additional incomes for resource-poor farmers, and increase biodiversity through enriching soil profiles, all of which contribute to ensuring food security.

Smallholder farmers make decisions about forage crop selection based on various factors, reflecting their specific circumstances, needs, and available resources [11]. (1) Farmers assess the local climate and soil conditions such as temperature, rainfall patterns, and soil type to determine the suitability of particular forage crops for their region [21]. (2) Forage choice also depends on the intended use, whether for cut-and-carry feeding (e.g., clovers, maize, sorghum), grazing (e.g., Rhodes grass), hay (e.g., lucerne) or silage (e.g., maize) production [7,30], or ground cover to prevent soil erosion (e.g., cowpea) [35]. Livestock species further influence forage selection as the nutritional needs of dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, or goats differ [39]. (3) Experienced and better-informed farmers tend to prioritize high-yielding and nutritionally rich forages (e.g., clovers and lucerne), which provide essential dietary protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals [40,41]. (4) Availability, affordability and access of inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation water remain crucial, with farmers opting for forages that are accessible in their local markets [10,25,42]. (5) Leguminous forages (e.g., clovers and lucerne) are frequently integrated into crop rotations to enhance soil fertility, manage pests and diseases, and diversify income streams [4,8,9]. (6) Under current climate variability scenarios, water availability becomes a decisive factor. In water-scarce regions, farmers often prefer drought-tolerant or rainfed species (e.g., millet and sorghum) that can withstand dry spells [12,21]. (7) Finally, market dynamics at local and regional levels also influence decisions of forage crop selection, with farmers choosing crops based on market demand and better returns [26,43]. Overall, smallholder farmers navigate a complex decision-making process, considering environmental conditions, livestock requirements, resource accessibility, and market dynamics to ensure the sustainability and resilience of their farming operations.

Harvesting dual-purpose crops for forage or seed involves a strategic trade-off influenced by production goals, feed availability, market demand, and seasonal constraints [25,44]. Early harvest improves forage quality but reduces seed yield, while delayed harvest favors seed production at the expense of feed value [13]. Subsistence farmers often prioritize early forage harvest to sustain livestock, whereas market-oriented producers focus on seed for income or planting material [4,32,33]. Forage harvest improves animal productivity and health, while seed harvest ensures local seed supply and revenue [4,45]. The optimal choice depends on agroecological conditions, market access, and livelihood priorities, highlighting the importance of participatory research and extension support to guide context-specific decisions [18,35,44].

3. Current Landscape of Forage Seed Supply Systems in Rural Communities

In rural communities, the forage seed supply system consists of both formal and informal (local) seed supply mechanisms. The formal system comprises breeding, seed production, and distribution, and has evolved over the past five decades to enhance agricultural productivity through the assessment and systematic breeding of new varieties by research organizations [46]. However, its penetration has been limited, accounting for only 10–20% of the seed used by farmers, with the remainder sourced through the informal system [4,47]. Figure 1 depicts the example of the most common seed supply systems (formal and informal) currently operating in smallholder mixed farming systems. Rural communities and agricultural markets or “Mandi” function similarly in terms of seed distribution [25]. The limitations of these seed distribution systems provide significant development opportunities for informal seed supply routes.

The informal seed supply system operates within farming communities, involving the local production and distribution of seeds. Farmers select and reproduce seeds of locally grown cultivars or landraces through varietal selection and evaluation, leading to the development of locally adapted cultivars/varieties [32,48]. This system offers economic benefits, high-quality seeds, and easy accessibility, which are particularly valued by farmers when local supplies are reliable and affordable. The informal seed system is rational, dynamic, and cost-effective, driven by the social relationships and exchange of local knowledge within farming communities [49]. However, it faces challenges such as limited cooperative efforts to improve forage quality and insufficient engagement in participatory research with the latest genetic technologies [44]. These technologies include genomic selection (GS), marker-assisted selection (MAS), double haploid techniques, and advanced phenotyping tools, offering the potential to accelerate the development of forage cultivars with improved yields, better nutritional value, pest/disease resistance, and climate resilience [13,19,50]. However, certain technologies like mutagenesis or genetic modification (GM) are not compatible with organic agriculture standards and may conflict with the cultural and ethical values of certain farmer groups [19,36]. For these communities, breeding programs are more impactful when they emphasize participatory varietal selection through conventional breeding methods, farmer-led selection, or the use of locally adapted landraces, approaches that align with organic certification and traditional practices [43,44]. To ensure adoption and long-term success, breeding efforts must also respect key farmer values such as seed sovereignty, local biodiversity preservation, and affordability [23,35,51]. Therefore, strengthening participatory research requires aligning breeding goals and methodologies with both the technical needs and the socio-cultural preferences of diverse farming communities.

To address these challenges, engaging cooperative farmers in participatory research can strengthen farmer-to-farmer relationships, paving the way for the development of VBFSEs at the village level, thus promoting rural development [25]. Research organizations could form linkages with formal research entities, serving as field test sites for new cultivars. Integrating formal and informal seed systems through combined approaches in breeding, selection, seed production, packing and storage, and distribution has the potential to improve seed supply for smallholder farmers. This integration also supports the maintenance of local cultivars while introducing improved varieties [48]. The success of quality seed supply in rural communities relies heavily on leading or experienced farmers. By involving farmers in the production process and sharing profits from the dissemination of superior seeds, farming communities gain a sense of ownership over the enterprise rather than leaving them with the perception that multinational agricultural enterprises are the sole commercial beneficiaries of such an important farming commodity. Factors such as technical guidance (70%), soil fertility (85%), and the quality of basic seeds (97%) are significant contributors to successful seed production at the local level [25].

Despite advancements in the formal seed system and the development of many improved varieties of forages, seed supply to smallholder farmers remains limited [32]. High production costs, poor adaptation of improved varieties, and inadequate seed production technologies constrain the forage seed supply [44]. Additionally, research institutes, though major public sector seed producers, cannot always ensure easy access to improved forage seeds for farmers. Attempts have been made by various private and non-government organizations (NGOs) to bridge this gap between seed demand and supply but have fallen short of expectations [52,53]. Ayuko et al. [4] recently examined various Kenyan government initiatives designed to boost forage production, employing a Propensity Score Matching (PSM) technique. Their analysis led to the recommendation of establishing a national-level forage development program aimed at improving livestock production and increasing household incomes. Similarly, McGill, et al. [54] made comparable recommendations for Pakistan, advocating for a national forage development program that emphasizes farmers’ participatory research and the development of VBFSEs at the village level.

To address these issues, policymakers should focus on making seed markets more accessible to smallholders. For long-term sustainability in smallholder crop–livestock systems, policy interventions should take a holistic approach that supports the entire value chain, encompassing forage seed systems, cereal production, and livestock outputs (milk and meat) rather than prioritizing one at the expense of others [10,25,55]. Accessible seed markets remain critical, and NGOs can play a pivotal role in expanding farmer education and training programs [52], which are essential for the effective transfer of seed production technologies at the farm level [25,41]. On a broader level, Lema et al. [35] recommended coordinated efforts between government organizations, NGOs, and seed businesses or enterprises to develop equitable seed distribution systems that ensure smallholder farmers have access to high-quality seeds.

Furthermore, public funds should therefore not only strengthen forage seed systems, particularly those incorporating high-quality legume forages for their soil fertility and feed benefits but also complement them with targeted support for cereal production and livestock enterprises. Such an integrated funding strategy can enhance on-farm productivity, improve household nutrition, and create diversified income streams, ultimately delivering more sustainable outcomes for smallholder farming communities worldwide.

4. Challenges in Forage Seed Production and Supply

Despite the critical role of forages in sustaining mixed farming systems, access to improved-variety seed remains a significant challenge [13,53]. The forage seed supply is predominantly managed by the formal seed system overseen by public institutes responsible for seed production, processing, and marketing [36,53]. However, these formal systems largely operate with set procedures, necessitating an efficient production and distribution model to enhance seed availability, and primarily focus on high-value crops like cereals (wheat, maize, rice), often neglecting forage crops, which are crucial for livestock productivity [33].

While the formal seed production and distribution system has undergone years of development, forage breeding and improvement in regions like sub-Saharan Africa still heavily rely on existing planting materials. This reliance limits smallholder farmers’ access to improved germplasm, a challenge echoed globally [6,7,12,53]. The scarcity of quality forage seeds results in reduced forage production, compromising livestock productivity and the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers. Despite these challenges, gross margin analyses have shown that on-farm forage production can be a profitable business, with significant market demand [4,36].

In regions like the Punjab Provinces of Pakistan and India, berseem clover, oat, maize, millet and sorghum are widely cultivated by 90% of smallholder farmers as key forage crops [25]. Similarly, in African countries, maize, millet, and sorghum serve as dual-purpose crops for both seed and forage, yet research on forage development remains limited, even by organizations like the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics [56]. Ates et al. [9] suggest that developing improved dual-purpose legume seeds and agronomic practices could intensify cropping systems and mitigate feed shortages. However, research station predictions often fail to align with on-farm outcomes due to variations in seeding rates, sowing and harvesting time, local climate, soil types, and irrigation water quality [25]. Therefore, educating farmers on adapting these practices to their specific conditions is crucial.

Establishing efficient small-scale seed production and distribution enterprises at the local level has shown promise in increasing forage and seed yields while alleviating the shortage of quality seed [57]. Village-based seed production offers economic benefits to smallholder farmers, including higher returns per unit area and improved soil fertility, especially when forage crops are legumes [43,45]. However, in some regions, forage cultivation is limited by factors such as constrained arable land, insufficient capital, lack of access to improved seed, and inadequate seed production technologies [31,36,58]. Climate change-induced droughts further exacerbate these challenges [21]. Additionally, smallholder farmers often contend with land degradation and nutrient-poor soils, particularly low nitrogen and carbon levels, which are essential for crop growth and productivity [12]. Carbon aids in nutrient cycling and soil water retention, while nitrogen promotes vegetative growth, and a deficiency of these nutrients can restrict crop biomass production [12,37]. Therefore, incorporating legume forages into crop rotations is a crucial activity for enhancing soil fertility and, consequently, forage supply.

Pollination is vital for forage seed production, particularly in cross-pollinated species where seed yield and quality rely on effective pollen transfer via insects or wind [59,60]. In smallholder farming systems, poor pollination management and low farmer awareness often result in suboptimal seed yields and quality, and unintended cross-pollination between varieties/landraces [25]. There is great potential for cross-pollination between modern forage varieties and local landraces when cultivated in proximity. The extent of cross-pollination depends on the species’ reproductive biology (self vs. cross-pollinated), pollination mechanism (self, insects, or wind), and isolation distance maintained between cultivated fields [25,61,62]. For outcrossing species such as clovers, Rhodes grass, or millets, gene flow between modern cultivars and landraces can occur, potentially leading to genetic introgression that may alter the traits of traditional varieties over time [60,61,63]. To minimize this unintended crossing, seed production systems implement spatial or temporal isolation, rogueing of off-types, and controlled pollination methods [60,64]. In participatory and VBFSE research, awareness and training on these practices are critical to preserving the genetic integrity of both improved and traditional varieties/landraces, particularly for communities prioritizing germplasm conservation for cultural, agronomic or resilience reasons [25,65].

Approximately 90% of forage crop seeds across African and Asian countries are sourced from farmers’ own production or through local seed exchange networks [25,32,33], making farmers key stakeholders in the forage seed production and distribution systems. In formal systems, seed certification and variety registration serve different purposes: certification verifies the physical and genetic quality of seed batches, ensuring they meet germination, purity, and health standards, while registration records a variety in a national catalog, often as a prerequisite for commercial sale [33,36]. For smallholder farmers, particularly those cultivating landraces, registration can be a bottleneck as it may require meeting costly and bureaucratic criteria that do not align with the informal seed system’s diversity and adaptive traits [43].

In participatory research and local seed production contexts, mandatory registration may not be necessary unless the objective is to market seed widely beyond local networks. Under Article 19 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants (UNDROP), farmers have the right to maintain, control, protect, and develop their own seeds and associated traditional knowledge [66]. Moreover, states are obliged to ensure seeds are available in sufficient quantity and quality at the right time and price, and to recognize farmers’ rights to use their own or other locally available seeds as well as to decide freely which crops and species to grow. This principle supports seed certification (to ensure quality) without imposing burdensome registration requirements on farmer-saved or locally adapted varieties.

The informal seed system often overcomes the lack of formal certification and registration through farmer-to-farmer trust, long-standing local exchange relationships, and participatory quality assurance practices such as community seed selection, storage, and germination testing [18,36]. In regions where there is cooperation between formal and informal systems such as through seed enterprises, farmers may adopt simplified or locally adapted quality standards, sometimes supported by NGOs or extension agencies to ensure seed viability and purity without the full administrative demands of national registration [33,57]. However, the regulatory framework governing forage seed production, processing, and marketing support, including private sector involvement, remains underdeveloped. This leaves growers vulnerable to exploitation by unscrupulous market actors [12]. Moreover, the lack of seed packaging facilities at government institutes hampers seed supply, highlighting the need for proper packaging or improvements in this area [53].

5. Strategies to Improve Forage Seed Production and Supply System

The development of improved forage cultivars involves breeding strategies tailored to smallholder needs. Conventional methods such as mass selection, recurrent selection, and hybridization are widely used to enhance yield, nutrition, pest and disease resistance, and climate resilience [9,48]. Advanced techniques like marker-assisted selection [50] and mutagenesis (non-organic systems) [19] can accelerate gains but require high technical expertise beyond the capacity of most growers. Breeding programs utilize diverse genetic resources such as landraces, wild relatives and germplasm collections to combine local adaptability with improved traits [33,44,49]. Strategy choice depends on production environments, farmer preferences, cultural values, and regulatory frameworks, particularly in organic systems where some technologies are restricted [18,35,36]. Intensification levels vary, from low-input organic farms to moderately intensified input-responsive systems [2,23,25], making it essential that improved varieties are accessible, adaptable, and acceptable to farmers across diverse agroecological and socio-economic contexts [5,10].

Despite efforts by government agencies, research institutes, and private companies to supply quality forage seed to small-scale farmers, this endeavor has proven economically unviable, leading to a decline in forage seed supply [26]. Commercial companies face economic challenges in producing seeds for cross-pollinated and perennial forage crops, limiting their participation in seed production and distribution. The current challenges in economically viable and sustainable forage production are exacerbated by the lack of improved seeds, inefficient markets, biased national policies, and inadequate incentives. Additional factors such as poor infrastructure, political instability, and climate vulnerability further hinder the production and use of quality seeds [9]. To address these challenges, several viable strategies outlined in this paper have been trialed and tested, offering potential solutions for farming communities.

5.1. Integration of Legume Forage Crops

Access to fresh green forage is often limited for up to six months each year, forcing farmers to buy expensive supplemental feeds to maintain livestock production [12,13,67]. This period can be further prolonged during droughts or other natural disasters that impede forage growth. Ensuring the consistent availability of quality forage year-round is therefore essential for cost-effective animal production [4]. Implementing a more efficient strategy to mitigate feed gaps by cultivating legumes among resource-poor farmers is expected to yield benefits for natural resources including fertility and water retention capacity of soils [6,12]. For example, integrating multi-cut legume forages like berseem clover into irrigated livestock production systems in Egypt and Pakistan can extend forage production and availability throughout the year, as these crops yield multiple forage cuts from a single seeding [15,68]. These legume forages provide nutritive feed with high protein content (16–22%) for livestock [13] and contribute to soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers [37,69].

Cultivating legume forages using improved-variety seeds and better agronomic practices has proven beneficial for smallholder farmers in improving the status of their farm budget. For example, case studies of growing berseem clover (in Pakistan) and lucerne (in Tanzania) reported increases in farm incomes by 149% and 113%, respectively, compared to the non-leguminous crop rotation [35,43]. However, lucerne requires careful management in water-limited smallholder systems. While its ability to extract moisture from deep in the soil profile can buffer against drought (deep tap-root system) and sustain growth when shallow-rooted crops fail, this can deplete subsoil moisture reserves [70]. Years following lucerne cultivation, particularly under persistent drought conditions, the growth of subsequent crops may be reduced if residual soil moisture is insufficient [71]. This trade-off can be mitigated through strategic rotation planning by using shorter-duration legume varieties or supplemental irrigations where feasible, though such irrigation is often beyond the means of many smallholder farmers.

Overall, legume forages in mixed farming systems have been shown to enhance crop yields, soil fertility, and livestock production, particularly in dryland cereal-growing regions of the world [9]. Additionally, the inclusion of legume forages into the animal feed base boosts profitability by reducing the need for and cost of concentrates in animal rations [6,39]. It also provides cover to prevent soil erosion and enhances rangeland productivity [12], thus promoting agricultural sustainability. Lema et al. [35] analyzed smallholder farmers’ knowledge and attitudes towards legume diversification more specifically and found that the availability and equitable distribution of seeds, ease of cultivation, increased production, market opportunities, and perceived profitability were key factors influencing their decision to grow legumes.

5.2. Integration of Climate-Resilient Forage Crops

Natural disasters pose significant threats to agriculture, compromising food security. The FAO [5] reports that about 50% of agricultural losses worldwide between 2007 and 2022 were due to natural disasters, with droughts and extreme temperatures (45%), floods, storms and cyclones (33%), earthquakes and tsunamis (12%), and fires (10%) being the primary hazards. In Africa, the situation is worsened by severe water shortages and degraded rangelands characterized by low rainfall and poor soils, leading to low-quality forage biomass containing only 5% crude protein, and a decline in livestock populations (32%) during drought years [12]. Similar challenges have been experienced in Asia, where droughts and floods have caused massive losses to crops and livestock [5]. Unpredictable weather patterns make rural farming communities vulnerable, particularly due to their reliance on natural resources [11]. Water scarcity and quality, alongside extreme temperatures, further limit forage yields and animal productivity. A comprehensive strategy is needed to grow climate-resilient forage crops, improve seed production, and ensure a regular supply of quality feed for livestock under varying climate conditions [12]. However, the strategies must be context-specific, considering the direct and indirect effects on livestock production, as adoption depends on the adaptive capacities of the rural communities.

In Kenya, for instance, smallholder farmers use Calliandra leaves during the dry season to alleviate feed shortages and sustain livestock production. However, with the degradation of rangelands and reduced tree foliage due to lower rainfall, many are increasingly turning to forage production to increase milk production [12]. Measures such as improving yields through varietal selection, intensifying forage production and conservation, managing soil nutrients by expanding crop rotations using legumes, and reducing extensive grazing to conserve rangelands are the key strategies that can enhance the nutritional resilience of farming environments and sustain animal production [6,21]. At the local community level, establishing demonstration plots to showcase improved seeds and agronomic practices, ensuring the regular supply of foundation seeds, and making seeds more affordable are vital steps in disseminating improved-variety seeds to more rural communities, complementing the formal seed supply system [18].

5.3. Enhancing Adoption of Improved Forage Cultivars

One of the primary reasons for the low adoption of forages among smallholder farmers is the inability of formal, centralized seed production systems to fulfill their diverse and complex seed requirements [36]. Studies from various regions, including Pakistan and Zimbabwe, have identified key constraints to adoption, including limited awareness about improved-variety seeds, imbalanced nutrient supply, high input costs, entrenched cropping patterns, significant financial risks, and volatile market conditions [25,58,72]. These challenges contribute to the low adoption rates of improved-variety seeds among farmers.

Furthermore, adopting legume forages in livestock production systems depends on several key factors, including farmers’ recognition of the benefits of legume cultivation [69], access to quality seeds [26], understanding of crop management, and clear financial indicators of profitability [43]. On the demand and supply sides, challenges remain in providing quality seeds to smallholder farmers. High production costs, poor adaptability of certain varieties, limited knowledge of seed production technologies, and low sale volumes are significant constraints [44]. Additionally, the lack of quantification of seed production and projected demand poses challenges for effective forage seed production and distribution [53]. Communication and socio-economic factors, such as market connectivity and dependency on off-farm income, play crucial roles in shaping farmers’ attitudes towards technology development and adoption [3,35,41]. For instance, if farm profit constitutes a small part of the family income, engagement with extension services may be limited [73].

Despite this, 53% of male-headed households have only completed primary education or have not attended any form of schooling [25]. Similarly, in Tanzania, a survey on legume diversification found that 59% of respondent smallholder farmers had only completed primary education and were hesitant to adopt legume diversification, preferring to stick to existing cropping patterns [35]. This suggests that the level of education greatly influences decision-making among smallholder farmers. Higher levels of education equip them with the skills needed to understand the importance and impact of activities, access to information, financial resources, and on-farm experimentation with the adoption of improved seed and agronomic practices [25,35].

It is imperative that new improved forage varieties not only maximize forage production but also exhibit high seed yields to facilitate subsequent cultivation, production and distribution of quality seeds [54,74]. In Punjab (Pakistan), the introduction of improved berseem clover varieties, along with recommended agronomic practices at the farm level, has demonstrated substantial potential, increasing both forage and seed yields by 40% and 80%, respectively [13]. However, smallholder farmers show different preferences in their ranking of forages, with high yields being the prevailing selection criterion. Research from Asia and Africa involving smallholder farmers indicates that factors such as access to improved seeds, the age and education level of farmers, and land ownership are significant determinants of the adoption of new forage varieties [6,25,46,75,76]. Additionally, farmers’ values, cultural traditions, and farming objectives strongly influence varietal selection and evaluation processes [51,75]. Preferences may reflect the multi-purpose use of crops (e.g., forage, seed, soil improvement), alignment with customary livestock feeding practices, preservation of locally adapted traits, taste and palatability for animals, or compatibility with intercropping and rotational systems that have cultural and livelihood significance [10,25,77].

To increase adoption rates, it is essential to provide quality seeds for high-yielding forages. Furthermore, the introduction of improved forage varieties into smallholder farming systems has not only enhanced forage production but has created new market opportunities for surplus forage and seeds, which can be sold within the farming communities [36,43]. This approach has augmented smallholder farmers’ income by boosting productivity, thereby improving their livelihoods and contributing to poverty reduction [78]. One proposed strategy to address these challenges in the central Punjab region of Pakistan involves the introduction of improved-variety seed of berseem clover (a legume) through farmers’ participatory experimental research, accompanied by the provision of seed and simplified production technologies [43]. This approach aims to enhance the adoption of legume forages among smallholder farmers. Similar systemic approaches, such as those suggested for maize crop productivity improvement in southern Punjab [58], underscore the importance of addressing the educational and socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ decision-making.

5.4. Improving Pollination Efficiency in Mixed Farming Systems

Challenges in forage seed production are multifaceted, with one critical aspect often overlooked being the role of pollination [60,61]. Addressing pollination challenges can enhance forage seed yields and quality, contributing to more sustainable and resilient agricultural systems. Pollination holds immense significance in forage seed production, particularly for crops dependent on cross-pollination for fertilization. Forage crops such as clovers and lucerne require insect pollinators like bees to efficiently transfer pollen between flowers, ensuring fertilization and subsequent seed setting and development [63,79]. However, factors like habitat loss [59], pesticide use malpractice [80,81], and climate change [82] have led to declines in pollinator populations, posing significant challenges for forage seed production. Conservation strategies, particularly for honeybees, are increasingly necessary to mitigate the adverse effects of pesticides and foster bee-friendly habitats, especially in the context of global warming and its impacts on agricultural ecosystems.

The complexity of the relationship between pollination mechanisms and various abiotic (e.g., temperature, humidity and wind) and biotic (e.g., genotypes and mixed cropping) factors has limited our comprehension of the pollination process in seed production [60]. Pollination in forage crops can occur through various mechanisms, including wind, insect, and self-pollination, depending on the crop species [61]. For instance, insect-pollinated crops rely on insect pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and flies, which are attracted to their prominent, fragrant flowers and nectar reward [83]. This interaction enhances cross-pollination, leading to improved genetic diversity [59]. Conversely, wind-pollinated crops, such as maize and certain grasses like Rhodes grass, depend on the airborne movement to carry lightweight pollen to reach neighboring flowers, facilitating fertilization [84]. Some crops like millet and sorghum can self-pollinate, where pollen from the same flower or plant fertilizes the stigma, ensuring seed set even in the absence of pollinators [85]. However, self-pollination often results in reduced genetic diversity and vigor compared to cross-pollination [64,84]. These pollination mechanisms typically operate concurrently, facilitating both flower fertilization and seed formation [65].

Seed yield reflects the symbiotic relationship between genotype, environmental conditions (temperature and humidity), and pollinators, particularly honeybees. Furthermore, agronomic practices such as sowing and flowering times are crucial in influencing pollinator efficiency and seed yield [13]. Elevated temperatures and low relative humidity during flowering stages can significantly hamper pollination [86,87]. Optimal temperatures (28–32 °C) and humidity levels (45–55%) are reported to maximize pollination activity by honeybees in berseem clover seed crop cultivated in Egypt. Li et al. [62] also identified high temperature during flowering as a leading abiotic stressor contributing to reduced seed yields in corn. They addressed this challenge by synchronizing pollination (the alignment of flowering time with pollinator activity) through planting crop mixtures instead of monocropping, resulting in an impressive 89% increase in seed setting.

Augmenting honeybee populations near forage crops has consistently resulted in a notable enhancement of seed yield. For example, Tufail et al. [61] reported a remarkable 119% increase in seed yield of berseem clover in the central Punjab region of Pakistan with honeybee-assisted pollination compared to self-pollination (without insects). Similarly, Bakheit [20] and Abdalla, et al. [88] observed significant increases of 101% and 88%, respectively, in berseem clover seed yields in Egypt with honeybee pollination. Ahmad, et al. [89] found a 58% increase in seed setting of berseem clover in the southern Punjab region of Pakistan (a high-temperature region), attributed to honeybee pollination. Integrating honeybees into pollination practices has the potential to substantially increase smallholders’ net income by PKR 46,395 per hectare (USD 475 per ha) [60]. In lucerne, open pollination with insects resulted in an 85% higher seed setting compared to self-pollination (0%) [79]. Additionally, in corn crops, mixing cultivars with diverse flowering and drought tolerance attributes has increased seed yields through pollination synchrony [62].

Maintaining robust and healthy pollinator populations is essential for adequate pollination and seed set in forage crops. Despite the benefits of augmenting honeybees in proximity to crops, managing these insect vectors within mixed farming systems remains challenging. Implementing pollinator-friendly practices, such as reducing pesticide usage, planting flowering cover crops (mix cropping), and providing nesting sites for bees, supports pollinator populations in agricultural landscapes [82]. Furthermore, managed pollination techniques, such as hive placement and timed pollination, can optimize pollination efficiency and improve seed yield in forage crops [61]. Safeguarding pollinator populations not only benefits forage seed production but also supports ecosystem health and biodiversity. Furthermore, understanding the pollination requirements of different forage crops is essential for optimizing seed production practices. By promoting pollinator-friendly habitats and practices, farmers can enhance pollination services and thus improve seed yield and quality.

5.5. Capacity Building in Forage Seed Production and Post-Harvest Management

The foundation for quality seed production begins with acquiring high-quality basic seeds. Sowing and harvesting times are crucial agronomic practices that impact both forage and seed yields as well as quality [90]. These field operations are closely tied to successful pollination and fertilization processes, which are largely dependent on climate factors like temperature and wind, both of which are affected by the timing of sowing and harvesting [91]. High temperatures and water stress during the seed setting and grain filling stages can significantly reduce seed yields and quality [92].

The appropriate type and rate of fertilizer application are essential for improving yields and quality. However, it is important to optimize fertilizer use due to cost considerations [42]. Seed inoculation of legume species is a vital agronomic practice in enhancing plant growth and productivity. By accelerating nodule development, inoculation increases root surface area and facilitates nitrogen fixation, which in turn improves nutrient uptake [37,93]. This process enriches the soil with essential nutrients, optimizing nutrient use efficiency, and results in a substantial increase in both forage and seed yields of berseem clover, along with improved quality [37]. Furthermore, seed inoculation supports the sustainability of agricultural systems by reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers, thereby promoting environmentally friendly farming practices.

Weed management is another critical aspect of seed production. Weeds compete aggressively with crop plants for essential resources like nutrients, moisture and space, significantly suppressing plant growth, particularly during the initial stages of crop establishment [94]. This competition can lead to a substantial reduction in yields, with losses ranging from 40 to 60% [95,96]. Additionally, the presence of weed seeds can contaminate the harvested seed, further diminishing seed quality and its market value [97]. In smallholder farming systems, weed control is typically achieved through manual methods, though herbicide application can also be effective [98], albeit with risks of crop injury, toxicity, and unsatisfactory results [99]. Deep plowing after the final harvest and using forages as a cover crop have also been effective strategies for weed control [38,95]. Traditional seed cleaning methods involve immersing seeds in a 10% common salt solution before sowing to help minimize field contamination with weeds, as the weeds and damaged seeds float to the water surface due to their lighter weight, with the quality seed remaining at the bottom [25].

As crops reach maturity, the timing of seed harvesting becomes critical. Seeds should be harvested when they are fully mature but before they start to shatter. Smallholder farmers usually harvest seeds manually or with small machinery, depending on the scale of their operations. Time of harvesting and post-harvest management practices are crucial in regulating seed harvest and minimizing seed loss and deterioration [13]. Post-harvest operations, including threshing, drying, and cleaning, are essential for ensuring the quality and viability of the seed [100]. Improved post-harvest practices and skills highlighted by David [36], such as rouging, drying, cleaning, sorting and grading, seed treatment and packaging, have been shown to enhance the quality of seed in farmer-led seed enterprises.

Capacity building for seed producers in post-harvest operations is essential to maintain seed quality and viability. This includes training in seed processing (e.g., cleaning, treatment, and packaging), seed storage (e.g., drying, moisture content management, spraying, and fumigation), and quality control (e.g., field inspection, seed testing, and labeling) [36,101]. Developing an operation calendar and monitoring system for all seed production and marketing practices used in VBFSEs can facilitate this process. Implementing cost-effective grading, cleaning, and treatment technologies for processing, packing and storing farmer-produced seeds through VBFSEs is recommended to maintain seed quality and ensure a reliable and consistent supply of high-quality forage seeds at the farm level [18].

5.6. Role and Capacity Building of Women Farmers in Local Seed Production, Procurement and Distribution

While men predominantly engage in agricultural activities and decision-making, women play an equally significant role in agriculture employment, particularly in lower-middle-income economies. Beyond their agricultural contributions, women are also responsible for childcare and household activities, making their involvement in agriculture critical for the overall well-being of rural communities [35,102]. Despite their substantial contributions, women’s roles are often underappreciated and undervalued. Recognizing and empowering women by ensuring their equitable access to resources and services are crucial for developing socially sustainable forage production systems [9]. This is particularly important because women often bear the brunt of adverse effects of environmental and economic disasters, which disproportionately affect their households [5].

Women’s involvement in seed selection, storage, and variety management is essential for the successful introduction and adoption of improved crop varieties. According to Almekinders and Louwaars [33], women are instrumental in these processes, ensuring that seeds are carefully selected, dried, preserved and distributed among the farming communities. In East Africa, particularly in Kenya, Wambugu, et al. [103] estimated that around 50% of smallholder farmers are women, who actively engage in planting and managing forage shrubs, highlighting their pivotal role in local seed systems. In Pakistan, women’s contributions to agriculture are even more pronounced, with estimates suggesting that they are responsible for 60% of household farming activities [104]. Similarly, in India, forage seed enterprises have proven to be economically viable and sustainable small-scale business opportunities for women in rural areas, further emphasizing the importance of women in smallholder agricultural sustainability [102]. These examples suggest that similar prospects exist in other countries with smallholder farming families, where women’s role could be further expanded and supported.

To sustain farmer-led forage seed enterprises, it is imperative to focus on capacity building for women farmers. Training and empowering women in agricultural operations of forage seed production and management, particularly in agronomic and post-harvest practices, can lead to more resilient and productive farming communities [9,33,36]. Investing in women’s skills and knowledge not only strengthens local forage seed production systems but also contributes to the overall food security and economic stability of rural households [43]. By prioritizing women’s involvement in all aspects of agriculture, from seed selection to distribution, we can foster more inclusive and sustainable agricultural systems that benefit entire rural communities.

6. Comparative Analysis of Conventional Breeding and Farmer-Participatory Research Models

The limited adoption of improved forage varieties among smallholder farmers in rural areas can often be attributed to a lack of information and farmer involvement in the varietal selection and evaluation process [14]. Traditionally, varietal selection has been conducted through a conventional linear model of agricultural extension, where the process was largely top-down without farmer participation. This approach often led to a mismatch between the varieties developed by researchers and the actual needs and preferences of farmers, resulting in low adoption rates in real-world farming conditions [25]. The importance of involving farmers in the varietal selection and evaluation process is highlighted by Lamega et al. [12], who emphasized the necessity of engaging smallholder farmers in solution-oriented activities to address feed gap issues, as this involvement provides a better or contextual understanding of local challenges and ensures the development of relevant solutions.

Participatory varietal selection offers a more inclusive approach, where farmers are actively involved in selecting and evaluating forage varieties and production technologies. This participatory research approach has been shown to significantly improve adoption rates of new cultivars (100%) and improve practices (62–87%) [54], as it ensures that the cultivars selected are well-suited to the local environmental conditions and meet growers’ preferences [25,29]. This farmer-participatory research approach links centralized local varietal development systems with local knowledge and preferences, leading to more productive and sustainable outcomes [16,46].

Participatory varietal selection and evaluation addresses the limitations of conventional breeding programs by offering smallholder farmers the opportunity to develop varieties or cultivars that align with the diverse agroecological conditions and best suited to their socio-economic conditions. This process not only enhances the relevance and effectiveness of breeding programs but also increases the likelihood of adoption of these varieties by smallholder farmers [13]. The seed produced through a participatory approach is more readily accepted in farming communities, where substantial investments in conventional plant breeding have often failed to deliver significant returns. The participatory approach has proven to be a more effective and sustainable alternative to demand-driven research which gives a voice to farmers by prioritizing the inputs and preferences of farmers, and elevates the importance of local knowledge in directing the science required to ensure food security in rural communities [17].

Figure 2 illustrates a comparative analysis between conventional breeding and farmer-participatory research models. The conventional breeding model focuses on centralized decision-making and scientific control with strict quality standards, while the farmer-participatory research model emphasizes contextual relevance, local involvement, and farmer empowerment [105,106]. This comparison underscores the importance of involving farmers in the research process to achieve more effective and sustainable agricultural outcomes. Expanding on the comparison, the farmer-participatory research model is particularly effective in regions with diverse agroecological conditions, where a one-size-fits-all approach of conventional breeding is less likely to succeed. By empowering farmers to play an active role in the research process, this model supports the development of varieties that are tailored to the specific needs of different farming communities, thereby enhancing food security and livelihoods [29,75].

In participatory varietal selection and evaluation, farmers conduct research trials on their own land, combining traditional knowledge with improved crop production technologies such as optimal sowing time and spacing, balance use of nutrients (e.g., organic manures and composts, mulching), integrated pest and disease management, improved irrigation scheduling, harvesting management, and the use of high-quality seed of improved varieties to identify the best-adapted seed varieties [25]. These technologies are selected to be context-specific, with organic-compliant options (e.g., biofertilizers, botanical pesticides, crop rotations and mechanical weed control) promoted in farming systems that avoid the use of synthetic inputs. This ensures compatibility with both conventional and organic production systems, recognizing that certain plant breeding methods (e.g., mutagenesis or genetic modification) are not acceptable under organic standards [19,30]. This hands-on involvement not only increases adoption rates [14,54] but also fosters a sense of ownership and empowerment among farmers [43,101]. Moreover, the integration of evaluation and propagation of high-yielding varieties, coupled with farmer training, has been shown to lead to more sustainable smallholder farming systems [13,28].

The participatory approach has also been found to improve cultivation practices and the dissemination of quality seed, ultimately improving the livelihoods of farmers across entire villages and their surrounding districts [75]. While much participatory research has focused on varietal selection and evaluation, there is also strong potential to extend farmer engagement with participatory plant breeding using natural breeding processes such as crossing, selection, and seed multiplication methods that align with farmers’ cultural values, organic standards, or even low-input systems [46,48]. Many smallholder farmers have expressed willingness to be involved not just in evaluating finished varieties, but also in the creation phase, where they can help choose genetic resources, set breeding goals, and decide on breeding methods suited to their agroecological context and value systems [51]. By fostering this deeper level of community involvement and collaboration, participatory programs can enhance both the relevance and acceptance of new cultivars. Moreover, this inclusion model supports the establishment of farmer-led seed enterprises, which can be scaled into VBFSEs. These seed enterprises empower farmers to address seed shortages, generate income, and maintain control over breeding directions through the development of their own seed production and marketing systems at the village or farm level [43].

The participatory research model promotes greater collaboration between researchers and farmers, fostering a genuine two-way exchange of knowledge. Through this process, researchers contribute scientific expertise, breeding methods, and technical guidance, while farmers share their experiential knowledge, cultural insights, and crop performance observations under real field conditions [51]. This dynamic exchange not only enhances the relevance and adaptability of research outputs but also strengthens trust and mutual respect between stakeholders [46]. This collaborative approach has been shown to result in more sustainable and resilient agricultural systems, as farmers are more likely to adopt and continue using varieties that they have helped to develop [46]. Additionally, participatory research often leads to the development of varieties that are not only high-yielding but also better adapted to local climate conditions, making them more resilient to climate change and other domestic challenges [17]. Importantly, this ongoing knowledge exchange also benefits researchers and enables them to gain a deeper understanding of local agroecosystems, farmer priorities, and practical challenges. These insights can inform and improve future breeding and management strategies.

A conceptual model of farmers’ seed enterprises is depicted in Figure 3, illustrating how seed production and distribution can be organized at the village level among farming communities. This model emphasizes the importance of local involvement and collaboration in creating sustainable seed systems that are resilient and responsive to the needs of smallholder farmers [18,36]. By shifting from conventional, top-down approaches to more participatory and farmer-centered models, agricultural development initiatives can achieve greater success in increasing on-farm productivity, improving food security, and enhancing the overall sustainability of farming systems in rural communities.

7. Village-Based Forage Seed Enterprises—A Sustainable Model for Commercial Forage Seed Production and Distribution

VBFSEs offer promising opportunities to boost forage production, thereby enhancing livestock output and augmenting farmers’ income, and in turn contributing to greater food security within farming communities [107]. These enterprises, which involve local farmers in the production and distribution of high-quality forage seeds, have shown significant promise in various regions of the world. For example, Tufail [18] tested the efficacy of the VBFSE model in the Punjab districts of Pakistan, yielding encouraging results. Seed entrepreneurs (farmers) earned substantial financial benefits, with earnings reaching PKR 357,300 (USD 2850) per hectare from the sale of surplus forage and seed. This success was achieved by utilizing seeds from an improved research station cultivar of berseem clover in conjunction with better agronomic practices. Compared to local farmer-saved and marketed seeds, seed entrepreneurs achieved significantly higher yields of green forage (average 89.65 t/ha; 39% increase) and dry matter (13.37 t/ha; 46% increase). The forage produced was also of higher quality, with a 2.5% greater dry matter digestibility, 3% higher crude protein content, and 5% lower fiber content. Additionally, they achieved a seed yield of 580 kg/ha of improved-variety seed, which marked a remarkable 211% increase [13].

Similar positive outcomes have been observed in other countries. In India, VBFSEs have led to a 15% increase in forage production and a corresponding rise in income of INR 12,500 (USD 450) per ha over local varieties [67]. On-farm profitability of forage production through VBFSEs has been reported to be 5–8 times higher than purchasing forage from commercial markets [43,67]. Therefore, cultivating forage legumes at the farm level for commercial seed production not only boosts the productivity of crops and livestock but also diversifies income sources, ensuring the sustainability of smallholder farming systems.

Furthermore, VBFSEs are a viable seed supply alternative, especially where formal seed supply systems are inadequate, particularly for smallholder farmers [47]. Sustainable small-scale VBFSEs have been proven successful in various regions of the world, producing substantial quantities of quality seed that are sold profitably to local farmers. This has been demonstrated by studies in Pakistan [43], India [75], Kenya [103], Afghanistan [101], Brazil [108], sub-Saharan Africa [109], and Southeast Asian countries such as Indonesia, Lao PDR, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam [110]. Moreover, VBFSEs serve as a crucial interface between research institutes leading plant breeding research and their primary clients, the smallholder farming communities, facilitating more effective research, policies, and interventions based on a better understanding of the nature of small-scale mixed farming systems.

Exemplary successful case studies presented below highlight the profitability and effectiveness of community-level seed production through VBFSEs, showcasing their viability as an alternative to complement the formal seed sector.

Successful Case Studies from Smallholder Farmers

Pakistan: The average monthly income per household of the smallholder farmers engaged in both crop and livestock enterprises is about PKR 55,000 (USD 200) [55], which is higher than the national per capita income of PKR 35,880 (USD 130) [111]. By adopting improved-variety seed and agronomic practices through varietal selection and evaluation, growing berseem clover and marketing the seed within farming communities in Punjab can potentially increase this income scale up to PKR 64,000 (USD 640) per month solely from berseem crop [43]. Furthermore, providing high-quality feed to livestock increases milk and meat production, improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, and ultimately leads to enhanced on-farm profitability and sustainability.

India: Participatory variety selection led to a remarkable 55% increase in peanut (Arachis hypogaea) production (a legume crop), and a substantial increase in peanut cultivation area under improved varieties from 1.2 to 142 hectares in just 5 years [67].

Afghanistan: Participatory varietal selection initiative yielded over 2000 metric tonnes of high-quality wheat, rice, mung bean, and potato seeds, with average purity exceeding 98% and germination rates exceeding 90%. These village-based seed enterprises proved financially lucrative, with an average net profit of USD 49,078 per enterprise, as evidenced by 17 seed businesses [101]. Furthermore, these enterprises were highly profitable, reflected in an average debt-to-asset ratio of 1.6%, indicating robust borrowing capacity with no financial risk.

Indonesia: Integrating corn cultivation with cattle production can yield a maximum annual income of IDR 57,186,127 (USD 3626), equivalent to USD 302 per month [8].

Syria: Higher incomes of USD 126 per hectare per year and higher dry matter production up to 5 tonnes/ha compared to 1 tonne/ha were reported by Ates et al. [9] when forage legumes such as vetch (Vicina sativa) were incorporated into wheat–fallow crop rotations.

Kenya: A recent study by Ayuko et al. [4] reported a significant 25% increase in household income among smallholders who fed cultivated Napier grass to their livestock, amounting to KES 3917 (USD 26) compared to other farmers who grazed their livestock on rangelands.

Tanzania: Lema et al. [35] reported a 113% increase in income when smallholder farmers adopted legume diversification practices compared to non-adopters.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations

The integration of legume forages into current cropping systems offers numerous benefits, including supplying high-quality feed for livestock, nitrogen enrichment for the soil profile, and providing the opportunity to harvest seeds for sale or future crops in small-scale mixed farming systems. To maximize the benefits while minimizing costs, adopting appropriate agronomic practices is paramount. Furthermore, farmer participation in the selection of suitable varieties/cultivars fosters a sense of ownership over their seed supply and reinforces the formal seed supply system. Through farmer-led research and the identification of superior high-quality seeds, new avenues for commercialization are opened. VBFSEs play a crucial role in improving the quality of on-farm saved seeds, facilitating the introduction of new, improved varieties, and effectively managing local demand and supply at affordable prices.

By bridging the gap between research and commercialization of cultivars, these enterprises serve as a vital link in the seed supply chain. The adoption of improved-variety seeds, particularly legumes, has a significant impact on whole-farm productivity and resilience. It not only boosts livestock productivity but also contributes to increased incomes for smallholder farmers, thereby improving food security and livelihoods for resource-poor farmers. Embracing farmer-led forage seed production and supply systems not only contributes to rural development but also ensures the long-term sustainability and prosperity of smallholder farming communities.

Based on the preceding discussion, the following recommendations are proposed, which could be included in national seed policies to strengthen the current forage seed production and supply systems:

• Implement appropriate mechanisms of collaboration between public and private sectors to strengthen public–private partnerships in seed production and extension programs. This collaboration should facilitate knowledge transfer to farmers on the cultivation of forage crops for both forage and seed production. The linkages between formal and informal seed sectors, extension workers, researchers and seed producer farmers need to be reinforced.
• Advocate for the amendment of current seed policies to formally recognize the role and value of informal seed production and distribution, and to create an enabling regulatory framework for VBFSEs. Supportive measures should include incentives for seed production, locally adapted seed quality standards, improved packaging facilities, and the removal of marketing constraints so that high-quality seed produced from VBFSEs can be marketed to neighboring farmers within the same village and surrounding areas. Such an approach would respect farmers’ rights under Article 19 (UNDROP) while ensuring that both seed quality and seed sovereignty are upheld.
• Smallholder farmers need to be provided with knowledge of the benefits of using improved varieties and better agronomic practices for increased on-farm production. In turn, researchers gain valuable insights into crop performance under real-world conditions, local practices, and socio-economic contexts, which enables more relevant, farmer-centered solutions. Private seed companies can also engage seed growers/entrepreneurs to establish large-scale businesses for the distribution of forage seeds across the country or regions.
• Establishment of insect pollination services, particularly honeybees, by incorporating honeybee hives or choosing fields near bushlands with abundant feral or native bee populations. This approach will enhance seed production per unit area and further strengthen on-farm seed production.
• Government institutes and donor agencies need to be encouraged to support the expansion of the involvement of smallholder farmers in village-based seed production. This support should include providing access to seeds of improved varieties, offering credits/loans, and extension advice on seed production, processing, storage, and marketing.
• Gender inclusivity is integral to forage seed production and enterprise development by providing equal opportunities and resources to women farmers. The valuable contributions of women in seed selection, production, and management need to be recognized and encouraged. Furthermore, capacity building and training of women farmers should be prioritized to ensure their active participation in the research process, considering their significant role in farm operations.
• Robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are required to assess the impact of interventions on forage seed production and supply systems. This will enable the identification of suitable varieties/cultivars and best practices and areas of improvement to inform future interventions.