The Association of the Global Climate Crisis with Environmental Risks and the Impact of Heat Stress on Occupational Safety, Health, and Hygiene ^†

Abstract

The relationship between the global climate crisis, which is associated with environmental risks, and occupational hygiene has not been extensively studied. This study develops a framework for identifying how climate change and the climate crisis could impact the workplace environment, workers, and occupational morbidity, mortality, and injury. A framework is used in this paper that is based on a review of the scientific literature published from 2014 to 2024, addressing climate risks, their interaction with occupational hazards, and their effects on the workforce. Eight categories of climate-related hazards are identified: increasingly high temperatures, dust and air pollution, sun and cosmic ultraviolet exposure, pandemics and infectious diseases, diseases transmitted by insects and changes in ecosystems, industrial occupational diseases, changes and crises in the built environment, and extreme weather events. Policies need to consider the gaps in the possibility of interactions between known hazards and new conditions and the productivity of workers, especially those who are most at risk of heat-related illnesses.

1. Introduction

The global climate crisis is an escalating challenge with profound implications for public health, occupational safety, and workplace hygiene. Climate-related hazards, including rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and deteriorating air quality, are reshaping the occupational health landscape and increasing workers’ vulnerability to adverse health effects [1,2]. While occupational safety standards exist, many fail to account for the interactions between climate change and workplace risks, particularly in high-exposure industries such as agriculture, construction, and manufacturing [3].

1.1. Climate Change and Occupational Health Risks

Heat stress is a major occupational hazard that affects physiological well-being, work capacity, and cognitive function. Elevated temperatures combined with prolonged physical exertion and personal protective equipment (PPE) requirements contribute to an increased risk of heat exhaustion, heat stroke, dehydration, and cardiovascular strain [4,5]. Studies indicate that heat-related illnesses are disproportionately rising in low- and middle-income countries due to inadequate regulatory frameworks and high rates of informal labor [6]. Beyond heat stress, climate change has also disrupted traditional work environments, creating new occupational hazards such as the following:

• Increased exposure to vector-borne diseases (e.g., malaria, dengue) in tropical and subtropical regions due to expanding insect populations [7].
• Respiratory diseases caused by air pollution and wildfire smoke, leading to higher rates of chronic lung conditions among outdoor workers [8].
• Physical injuries from extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes, floods, and wildfires), increasing workplace accident rates and mortality [9].

Despite these growing risks, current occupational health policies and safety regulations often fail to address climate-induced hazards adequately. For instance, existing guidelines for workplace heat exposure are frequently designed for temperate climates and do not account for geographical, cultural, or economic disparities in worker protection [10]. Consequently, vulnerable populations, such as outdoor laborers, public health inspectors, emergency responders, and factory workers, are facing an increasing burden of heat-related illnesses and productivity losses [6,8].

1.2. Research Hypothesis

This study hypothesizes that rising global temperatures and climate-related hazards significantly correlate with occupational health risks, particularly for workers in heat-intensive environments. It further investigates whether current workplace safety measures effectively mitigate these risks and identifies gaps in policy frameworks that require urgent intervention.

1.3. Study Objectives and Scope

To address these challenges, this study aims to achieve the following:

• Analyze the relationship between climate change-induced environmental hazards and occupational health outcomes.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of existing workplace safety measures in mitigating climate-induced risks.
• Identify policy gaps in occupational safety frameworks and propose evidence-based improvements.
• Develop a structured risk assessment framework to assess the interaction between climate change, occupational health risks, and labor productivity.

This study contributes to the broader discourse on climate resilience and occupational health policy by addressing these objectives. Given the increasing severity of climate change, governments, industries, and policymakers must prioritize worker protection through adaptive strategies, enhanced regulatory frameworks, and sustainable occupational health initiatives [11].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This study employs a scoping review methodology to systematically analyze 45 peer-reviewed articles published between 2014 and 2024. It examines the intersection of climate risks, occupational hazards, and workforce health outcomes. The review process follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure a structured and reproducible synthesis of the existing literature (Figure 1) [12].

2.2. Data Sources and Search Strategy

A structured database search was conducted across multiple scientific repositories, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and MEDLINE [13,14,15]. The search terms used included the following:

• (“Climate Change” OR “Global Warming”) AND (“Occupational Health” OR “Heat Stress” OR “Workplace Safety”);
• (“Extreme Weather Events”) AND (“Public Health Inspectors” OR “Workplace Regulations”);
• (“Air Pollution” OR “Heat-Related Illnesses”) AND (“Occupational Risks”).

A total of 259 records were identified, and after screening and eligibility assessment, 45 studies were selected for full-text analysis (Figure 1) [12].

Figure 1 details the systematic scoping review process, including the number of studies included, excluded, and filtered.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

2.3.1. Inclusion Criteria

Studies were included if they met the following conditions:

• Publication Type: Peer-reviewed articles, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.
• Relevance: Focus on occupational health, heat stress, and climate change impacts [16,17].
• Population: Studies analyzing workers in heat-intensive environments (e.g., agriculture, construction, and emergency response).
• Language: Articles published in English.
• Study Period: Research published between 2014 and 2024.

2.3.2. Exclusion Criteria

• Studies without full-text access.
• Articles focused solely on general climate change effects without occupational health aspects [18].
• Research on non-human subjects or laboratory-based experiments.
• Duplicates or preliminary studies without peer review.

2.4. Data Extraction and Analysis

Key variables extracted from the selected studies included the following:

• Study Location: Geographic region.
• Sample Size: Number of participants.
• Key Findings: Major conclusions.
• Statistical Methods: Analytical techniques applied [19].

Both quantitative and qualitative data were synthesized to provide a comprehensive assessment of occupational heat stress and climate change risks (Figure 2).

Figure 2 details the authors’ own elaborations and presents an overview of how climate change affects workplace safety, linking environmental stressors to occupational health risks.

2.5. Mathematical Models for Heat Stress Assessment

To quantify occupational heat stress, this study examines several thermal indices commonly used in workplace safety regulations [20,21].

Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) Index

WBGT is widely used to assess heat stress exposure based on environmental temperature, humidity, and radiation levels [22].

• Formula for Indoor Workplaces (Without Solar Radiation):

$$\mathrm{WBGT}=0.7{ T}_{nw}+0.3 T_g$$

(1)

where

• ⭘

  $T_{nw}$ = Natural wet bulb temperature;

  ⭘

  $T_g$ = Globe temperature.

• Formula for Outdoor Workplaces (Including Solar Radiation):

$$\mathrm{WBGT}=0.7 T_{nw}+0.2 T_b+0.1 T_a$$

(2)

where

• ⭘

  $T_a$ = Air temperature (insulated from direct radiation) [23].

These models calculate permissible heat exposure thresholds based on work–rest cycles and climatic conditions. The Figure 3 illustrates the Residential Summer Electricity Use Per Capita and Summer Cooling Degree Days in the United States, 1973–2024 [16].

3. Results

This scoping review achieved the following key objectives:

• Identified key occupational health risks associated with climate change.
• Summarized and categorized different workplace hazards.
• Provided insights into policy gaps and future research directions.

3.1. Categories of Climate-Related Occupational Hazards

This study identified eight major categories of climate-related occupational hazards:

• High temperatures → Heat stress, dehydration, and cardiovascular strain [24,25].
• Dust and air pollution → Respiratory diseases and lung damage [26].
• Sun and UV exposure → Skin cancer and vision impairment [27].
• Infectious diseases → Higher incidence of vector-borne illnesses [28].
• Vector-related disease transmission → Expansion of insect-borne illnesses [29].
• Industrial diseases → Aggravated by climate-driven environmental shifts [30].
• Extreme weather → Increased workplace accidents and fatalities [31].
• Built environment risks → Infrastructure instability due to climate stress [32].

Figure 4 details the authors’ own elaborations and visually represents the key climate risks affecting occupational health and productivity [33].

3.2. Public Health and Workplace Regulations

• Current workplace policies fail to address heat-related risks [34] fully.
• Occupational safety regulations need to be updated to account for climate projections [35].
• There is an urgent need for policy interventions, including the following:
  • Mandatory heat stress assessments [36].
  • Revised workplace safety standards [37].
  • Adaptive strategies for high-risk industries [38].

Figure 5 details the authors’ own elaborations and highlights deficiencies in current regulations and proposes solutions to improve workplace safety [39].

4. Discussion

The effective prevention and management of occupational heat stress during the climate crisis requires a multidisciplinary approach involving public health specialists, environmental scientists, policymakers, and international labor organizations. While hydration and shade breaks are widely regarded as fundamental heat stress mitigation measures, they alone are insufficient to protect workers from climate-induced heat risks. Comprehensive strategies must integrate engineering controls, regulatory reforms, and adaptive workplace practices to ensure long-term worker safety and productivity [40]. Current guidelines, such as those established by OSHA, emphasize the importance of hydration, requiring employers to provide cool drinking water and shaded areas to prevent heat exhaustion and dehydration [41]. Studies confirm that increasing water intake is an essential behavioral adaptation, significantly reducing the incidence of heat-related illnesses in outdoor workers [41]. Research conducted in China indicates that providing cool water access is the most widely adopted workplace adaptation during high-temperature conditions [42]. However, hydration alone does not eliminate the risks of extreme heat exposure in many work environments. Engineering controls, such as ventilation systems, reflective roofing, and cooling stations, have been shown to reduce ambient heat stress in high-risk occupations, but their implementation remains inconsistent across industries [43]. Similarly, administrative controls, including adaptive work–rest cycles based on the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index, are recommended in heat-intensive sectors such as agriculture and construction; however, their enforcement varies depending on regional regulations and employer compliance [44]. Advances in protective clothing technology, including lightweight, heat-resistant fabrics, have also been explored as potential solutions to reduce thermal burden on workers. However, adoption remains limited due to cost constraints and regulatory gaps [45]. Although OSHA has established heat stress prevention measures, there are significant global inconsistencies in how regulations are enforced. The World Health Organization (WHO) and International Labour Organization (ILO) emphasize the need for standardized heat stress assessments. Despite this, many countries still lack formal exposure limits or mandatory employer compliance mechanisms [46]. One key policy gap is the lack of enforcement; while OSHA mandates hydration and rest breaks, penalties for non-compliance remain rare, leading to widespread employer neglect [47]. Additionally, OSHA’s heat exposure limits do not account for increasing climate variability, whereas the ILO recommends region-specific thresholds to accommodate rising global temperatures. Another concern is the failure to integrate heat stress data into occupational disease monitoring systems, which results in the underreporting of heat-related workplace injuries in many national labor databases [48]. Addressing these issues requires mandatory climate-adaptive workplace regulations that incorporate real-time heat monitoring, legally binding heat exposure limits, and stricter employer accountability measures. Implementing automated climate surveillance systems in high-risk workplaces would allow the early detection of dangerous heat conditions, while expanding compliance inspections and penalty structures could enhance employer responsibility [49].

4.1. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

While this study provides a comprehensive synthesis of the existing literature, several limitations must be acknowledged. One of the main constraints is the reliance on secondary data, as this study does not include experimental or field validation of heat stress interventions [50]. Additionally, most of the reviewed research focuses on industrialized nations, limiting the applicability of findings to developing regions, where occupational heat stress risks may be more severe due to inadequate infrastructure and weaker regulations. Another challenge is variability in workplace adaptation measures, as studies lack standardized metrics for evaluating employer compliance with heat stress prevention guidelines [51]. To address these gaps, future research should prioritize longitudinal studies to assess the long-term health effects of occupational heat exposure, particularly among vulnerable populations such as agricultural and construction workers. Further investigation into predictive models that integrate meteorological data with occupational health statistics could improve real-time risk assessment and policy enforcement strategies. Additionally, conducting experimental trials on engineering interventions, such as ventilation systems, cooling stations, and heat-resistant clothing, would provide valuable insights into effective workplace adaptation measures [52]. The increasing impact of climate-induced occupational heat stress necessitates urgent policy action. Strengthening regulatory oversight, enhancing workplace adaptation strategies, and expanding scientific research efforts are critical steps in mitigating the long-term consequences of climate change on worker health and productivity [5,6]. By addressing these research gaps and policy deficiencies, occupational health specialists, industry leaders, and policymakers can work collaboratively to develop more robust interventions that ensure worker safety in an era of escalating climate challenges.

4.2. Future Research Directions

While this study provides a comprehensive synthesis of the existing literature, several research gaps remain. There is a critical need for longitudinal studies to assess the long-term health effects of occupational heat stress, particularly in high-risk populations [53]. Further research should explore sector-specific adaptation strategies, as different industries exhibit varying levels of heat exposure and regulatory compliance [54]. Additionally, experimental trials assessing the effectiveness of engineering controls, such as ventilation systems, cooling stations, and protective clothing innovations, would provide valuable insights into workplace adaptation measures. The integration of AI-driven predictive models, combining climate projections with occupational health data, could facilitate real-time risk assessment and early warning systems for high-risk work environments [55]. As global temperatures continue to rise, the need for climate adaptation in occupational health policies is becoming increasingly urgent. The consequences of climate-induced heat stress extend beyond individual health risks, affecting workforce productivity, national economies, and global labor markets [56]. To address these challenges, policymakers, researchers, and industry leaders must collaborate to develop and implement science-based heat stress management policies that prioritize worker health, safety, hygiene, and well-being. Future research and proactive regulatory measures will play a crucial role in mitigating the long-term consequences of climate change on occupational health predictions [57].

5. Conclusions

Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme heat events, which poses significant risks to occupational health, worker productivity, and economic stability. This study’s findings highlight that occupational heat stress is a growing public health concern, with rising temperatures exacerbating workplace hazards and increasing the prevalence of heat-related illnesses. Existing workplace safety guidelines, such as those from OSHA, emphasize hydration and rest breaks, yet enforcement remains inconsistent across industries and geographic regions. More robust, climate-adaptive policies are needed, particularly in high-risk sectors such as agriculture, construction, and emergency response. Strengthening regulatory frameworks, improving hazard assessment methodologies, and integrating climate data into workplace safety policies will be essential in mitigating long-term occupational health risks. Further research is needed to develop effective adaptation strategies, including engineering controls, protective clothing innovations, and real-time heat monitoring systems. Governments and international labor organizations must collaborate to establish globally standardized workplace heat stress regulations, ensuring that worker health and safety remain a priority in the face of ongoing climate challenges. The urgency of addressing climate-related occupational health risks cannot be overstated. As global temperatures continue to rise, scientific research, policy interventions, and industry-driven solutions must align to create sustainable, heat-resilient work environments. Investing in proactive regulatory measures and occupational safety innovations will be critical in safeguarding workers, preventing economic losses, and enhancing resilience against climate-induced occupational hazards.