Next Article in Journal
Addition of Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes to the Feed of Confined Steers Modulates Fat Profile in Meat
Previous Article in Journal
Influence of Virtual Fencing Technology in Cattle Management and Animal Welfare
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Ruminants
Volume 5
Issue 2
10.3390/ruminants5020022
ruminants-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Effect of a Pre-Mix of Essential Organic Minerals on Growth, Antioxidant Indices, and the Diarrhea Incidence in Dairy Calves Breed in Arid Climates

by
M. S. Mortazavi
1,
M. Hajmohammadi
1,
Giovanni Buonaiuto
2,
Riccardo Colleluori
2,
Martina Lamanna
2,
Damiano Cavallini
2,
R. Valizadeh
1,*,
S. H. Ebrahimi
1 and
C. A. F. Oliveira
3
1
Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 91735, Iran
2
Department of Veterinary Medical Science, University of Bologna, 47181 Bologna, Italy
3
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Ruminants 2025, 5(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5020022
Submission received: 27 March 2025 / Revised: 20 May 2025 / Accepted: 26 May 2025 / Published: 30 May 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Simple Summary

Diarrhea is a major health challenge for dairy calves, particularly in arid climates, where stress and poor nutrition can weaken their immune defenses. This study investigated whether supplementing calf diets with organic forms of copper, zinc, and manganese could enhance antioxidant defenses and reduce diarrhea incidence. Twenty-five male Holstein calves were fed different mineral supplements for 21 days. While mineral supplementation did not affect body weight or daily gain, it significantly increased blood mineral concentrations and improved antioxidant enzyme activity. Moreover, calves receiving zinc or copper showed a lower incidence of diarrhea compared with the control group. These findings suggest that organic trace minerals may support calf health and resilience under stressful environmental conditions.

Abstract

This study evaluated the effects of organic trace mineral supplementation on growth performance, antioxidant indices, mineral status, and diarrhea incidence in dairy calves raised in arid climates. Twenty-five male Holstein calves were randomly assigned to five dietary treatments for 21 days, as follows: (1) control group (no organic mineral supplementation), (2) copper-methionine (Cu-Met) supplemented diet, (3) zinc-methionine (Zn-Met) supplemented diet, (4) manganese-methionine (Mn-Met) supplemented diet, and (5) Zn-Met + Cu-Met + and Mn-Met in a premix supplemented diet. Mineral supplementation had no effect on final body weight or average daily gain. However, the concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Mn significantly increased (p < 0.01) in blood and feces of treated animals. The highest blood concentrations of Zn and Mn were observed in calves receiving Zn-Met, while Mn-Met supplementation significantly influenced blood Cu levels. The highest Zn excretion was recorded in calves receiving the organic mineral premix, whereas the highest Mn and Cu excretion was observed in the Cu-Met group. Additionally, mineral supplementation enhanced total antioxidant capacity and superoxide dismutase activity in plasma samples (p < 0.01). These findings suggest that organic mineral supplementation could be an effective strategy to improve mineral bioavailability and support the health of dairy calves during early life in arid climates.

1. Introduction

The dairy sector faces multiple challenges that affect both productivity and economic sustainability, especially the prevalence of neonatal diseases [1], the volatility of market conditions, and the need to adopt emerging technologies [2]. These challenges are further intensified by climate change, particularly in arid regions where heat stress impairs animal welfare and reduces milk production [3]. Within this complex scenario, calf health represents a critical point of vulnerability [4]. Neonatal diarrhea is one of the most common and economically significant disorders affecting dairy calves, leading to increased veterinary costs, impaired growth, delayed weaning, and higher mortality rates [5,6]. These early-life health setbacks often translate into long-term consequences such as reduced milk yield in the first lactation and increased replacement rates [7]. Managing and preventing diarrhea is therefore essential not only for animal welfare but also for the long-term profitability of dairy farms, especially in harsh environments where calves are already exposed to considerable physiological stress [8]. Multiple factors contribute to the onset of neonatal diarrhea, including inadequate maternal nutrition during gestation [9], difficult calving [10], poor colostrum intake [11], and suboptimal calf feeding [12,13]. Malnourished calves are particularly susceptible to infectious diseases like diarrhea and pneumonia, with higher mortality risk and reduced lifetime productivity [14]. Even when recovery is achieved, affected calves often experience long-lasting growth retardation, thus highlighting the importance of early nutritional and management strategies [7].
In this context, the role of trace minerals in supporting calf health has gained increasing attention. Essential elements such as zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) are involved in a wide range of physiological functions including immune competence, skeletal development, cellular replication, and oxidative balance [15]. Deficiencies in these minerals can compromise growth, impair immune responses, and increase susceptibility to disease [16]. For instance, Zn is widely recognized for its anti-inflammatory and anti-diarrheal properties and has been used to prevent gastrointestinal infections in both human infants and neonatal animals [17,18]. Similarly, Cu and Mn are involved in numerous enzymatic systems and act as biomarkers of inflammation and tissue integrity [19].
One of the critical pathways through which trace minerals exert their protective effects is the antioxidant defense system [18,19]. During episodes of diarrhea, intestinal infections stimulate an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage epithelial cells, compromise barrier function, and impair nutrient absorption [20]. If not properly neutralized, oxidative stress exacerbates inflammation and delays recovery. Young calves are particularly vulnerable due to their immature antioxidant systems [4]. Enhancing antioxidant capacity through nutritional supplementation—particularly with trace minerals involved in antioxidant enzyme systems such as superoxide dismutase (SOD)—may mitigate intestinal damage, reduce the severity and duration of diarrhea, and support improved growth [18]. Moreover, the source and bioavailability of trace minerals significantly influence their effectiveness [21]. Organic forms, such as amino acid chelates (e.g., Cu-methionine [Cu-Met], Zn-methionine [Zn-Met], and Mn-methionine [Mn-Met]), are generally better absorbed than inorganic salts, leading to more stable blood mineral levels and improved physiological responses [22]. Previous studies have demonstrated that organic mineral supplementation can enhance growth performance and reduce disease incidence in calves [23,24,25]. However, there is little information on the beneficial effects of mineral supplementation on calves. Given these considerations, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of supplementing dairy calves with a premix of organic trace minerals—specifically Cu-Met, Zn-Met, and Mn-Met—at levels exceeding the National Research Council (NRC) requirements [26]. The research focused on evaluating blood mineral concentrations, antioxidant status, growth performance, and the incidence of diarrhea in pre-weaning calves raised under arid climatic conditions.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was conducted following the ethical principles recommended by the animal care committee of the University of Mashhad, in accordance with the guidelines of the Iranian Council of Animal Care. The health status of each calf was recorded at birth and monitored throughout the trial period.

2.1. Animals and Experimental Diets

The experiment was carried out between August and September 2022 at the Dairy Cattle Research Center of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. Twenty-five, one-month-old male Holstein calves with average body weight (BW) of 40.2 ± 1.6 kg were used in the study. These calves were sourced from the university’s dairy farm, which specializes in breeding high-quality dairy cattle. Artificial insemination (AI) had been applied to synchronize calving, using hormonal treatments to induce ovulation and coordinate parturition, thereby ensuring uniformity in calf age at the start of the trial. Calves were selected based on similar age and health status to reduce variability and enhance the reliability of the experimental data. Upon arrival at the research center, all calves were weighed and evaluated for body dimensions, including chest circumference, body length, withers height, hip height, hip length, and pin length. Each calf received 2 L of colostrum twice a day (at 08:30 and 16:00 h) during the first three days of life. From day 4 onward, the experimental calves were fed raw cow milk at a rate of 10% of their BW until day 21. A starter concentrate was formulated according to NRC [26] recommendations, then provided to each calf from day 4 to day 21.
Each calf was then placed in an individual pen equipped with bedding made of dry manure and wheat straw, and provided with independent water troughs and feeders, within a covered housing system. To ensure acclimatization, calves were managed under uniform conditions for one week before the start of the experimental treatments. Following this acclimatization period, calves were randomly assigned into five treatment groups (n = 5 per group) using a random number generator. Randomization occurred immediately before the onset of the 21-day supplementation period. This approach ensured that all animals began the treatments under comparable conditions, minimizing potential confounding effects related to housing or handling stress.
From day 1 of the experiment, each calf received 4 L of whole milk daily (10% of BW), divided into two feedings (6:00 and 20:00 h). The mineral supplements used in the study were commercially available products that were mixed into the raw milk, and administered daily to calves in the morning feeding (6:00 h). The five experimental groups consisted of a control group, which received no additional mineral supplementation (CTR), and four treatment groups that received either 10 mg/day of Cu-Met (5% purity) (G1), 80 mg/day of Zn-Met (5% purity) (G2), 50 mg/day of Mn-Met (5% purity) (G3), or a premix containing all three organic minerals at the same respective doses (referred to as the Pre-mix group). These supplementation levels were selected based on previously published studies [21,22,24] and were intended to reflect practical and physiologically relevant doses. The calves had ad libitum access to a starter feed composed of 10% alfalfa and 90% starter concentrate [26]. The total amount of the required starter feed was prepared in a single batch for uniformity, and the orts were weighed daily to estimate intake. The chemical composition and ingredients of the starter diet are presented in Table 1.

2.2. Sample Collection

Three samples of the starter concentrate were collected and analyzed for crude protein (CP; AOAC, method 976.05), dry matter (DM; AOAC, method 930.15), and ether extract (EE; AOAC, method 4.5.05). The acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) contents were determined following the methods described by Van Soest et al. [27] and previous studies [28].
The average daily gain (ADG) was determined by weighing each calf on days 1 and 21 of the experiment. Starter feed intake was recorded daily, and the average intake was calculated. Fecal samples were collected directly from the rectum of each calf on days 7, 14, and 21, then oven-dried to determine dry matter content. At the end of the experiment, fecal samples from each calf were pooled, ground, and analyzed for mineral content. Fecal consistency was assessed daily using a four-point scoring system, where a score of 1 corresponded to normal feces, 2 to pasty feces, 3 to semi-liquid feces, and 4 to liquid feces with an unusual color [15]. Diarrhea was defined as a fecal score of 3 or 4, according to Marcondes et al. [29]. The incidence of diarrhea in each treatment group was calculated using the formula described by Chang et al. [17].
Incidence   of   diarrhea   % = Calves   with   diarrhea   in   each   group   ×   diarrhea   days Total   calves   in   each   group   ×   experimental   days × 100
Blood samples were collected from each calf on the morning of day 21. Serum was obtained by centrifuging the blood samples at 3000× g for 15 min at 4 °C, then stored at −20 °C until analysis. The oxidative status of the calves was evaluated by measuring total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) concentrations in serum. These parameters were quantified using commercially available assay kits (Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute, Nanjing, China) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. All analyses were performed by a certified veterinary diagnostic laboratory.
In addition, the concentrations of Zn, Cu, and Mn in the starter feed, serum, and feces were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), following the protocols described by Enjalbert et al. [30] and later refined by subsequent studies [31].

2.3. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using SAS software (version 9.4; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A one-way ANOVA was performed using the MIXED procedure, and the least squares’ means were reported. The statistical model used was the following:
Y i j = μ + α i + β j + ε i j
where, Y i j is the observed response variable, μ is the overall mean, α i is the fixed effect of the i-th treatment (five levels: CTR, Cu, Zn, Mn, and Pre-mix), β j is the random effect of the j-th calf, and ε i j is the residual error.
This mixed-effects model was used to evaluate treatment effects while accounting for calf-specific variability. The normality of residuals was verified to ensure the assumptions of ANOVA were met. Differences among treatment means were tested using Tukey’s post hoc test, and statistical significance was set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

Starter intake, average daily gain (ADG), feed efficiency, and fecal scores are presented in Table 2. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in these performance parameters among calves receiving mineral supplementation. The inclusion of Cu-Met, Zn-Met, Mn-Met, or their premix did not significantly affect initial body weight (BW), feed efficiency, or fecal scores compared to the control group (Table 2).
The incidences of diarrhea in calves from control, G1 (Cu-Met), G2 (Zn-Met), G3 (Mn-Met), and Pre-mix groups were 8.57, 8.57, 3.80, 3.80, and 3.80%, respectively. The concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Mn in blood and feces are reported in Table 3. Mineral supplementation exceeding the requirements established by NRC [26] significantly affected the mineral concentrations in both blood and feces (p < 0.01). Zn-Met supplementation had a significant impact on blood concentrations of both Mn and Zn. The highest Zn excretion was observed in the group receiving the organic mineral mixture (Pre-mix), while the highest Mn and Cu excretion was recorded in calves supplemented with Cu-Met.
As shown in Table 4, dietary supplementation with organic minerals above the recommended levels significantly improved blood antioxidant indices, particularly SOD and TAC (p < 0.01). The highest blood SOD concentrations were observed in calves supplemented with Zn-Met and Cu-Met (p < 0.01), whereas GPx concentrations were highest in the control group (p < 0.01).

4. Discussion

The present study demonstrated that supplementation with additional Cu-Met, Mn-Met, and Zn-Met had no significant effect on starter intake, feed efficiency, and initial body weight (BW) in dairy calves during the experiment. Similarly, Nair et al. [32] reported that trace mineral supplementation had no significant impact on BW, DMI, or ADG, whereas Chang et al. [17] found that feeding Zn-Met improved the feed-to-gain ratio, likely due to its higher bioavailability. Additionally, they suggested that Zn supplementation in the form of Zn-Met (rather than ZnO) enhanced ADG in dairy calves during the first two weeks of feeding. The growth-promoting effect of organic minerals was also found to be superior to that of inorganic minerals [33]. Several studies have indicated that additional trace mineral supplementation, regardless of source (inorganic or organic), does not significantly impact DMI or feed efficiency [34,35,36,37]. Similarly, Mudgal et al. [38] observed no effect of Cu and Zn supplementation (10–40 ppm) on BW in buffalo calves.
Although no statistically significant differences were observed, the reduced incidence of diarrhea in all mineral-supplemented groups compared to the control suggests a potential health-promoting effect of organic trace minerals. This trend may reflect an improvement in gut function and immune stability, possibly mediated by subtle, early-life physiological responses to enhanced mineral status. Given the short duration of the trial and the limited sample size, these results should be interpreted cautiously. However, the consistency of the reduction across all supplemented groups supports the hypothesis that organic forms of Zn, Cu, and Mn may contribute to improved gastrointestinal resilience in pre-weaning calves under environmental stress.
A positive effect of trace mineral supplementation was observed on total plasma mineral levels in dairy calves, highlighting a synergistic effect on Zn bioavailability. The highest mean blood Zn concentration was detected in calves supplemented with Zn-Met and the organic mineral premix. Consistently, Nair et al. [32] reported that supplementing Zn, Cu, Mn, and Cr increased serum concentrations of these minerals in male calves compared to the control group. Cazarotto et al. [39] found that selenium and Zn levels were higher in the serum of dairy lambs fed a supplemented diet. Xin et al. [40] suggested that plasma Cu concentrations could be influenced by disease status, dietary Cu levels, and gestation. In Cu-deficient diets, Cu supplementation significantly increased plasma Cu, whereas no significant increase was observed in lambs fed Cu-adequate diets. Previous studies also reported that moderate Zn supplementation (20–150 mg/kg diet) in Zn-adequate rations had little or no effect on serum or plasma Zn levels in dairy calves [41,42]. However, high Zn concentrations (300–500 mg/kg) significantly increased serum or plasma Zn levels. Similarly, increasing dietary Mn levels up to 240 mg/kg had no effect on plasma Mn concentrations in steers [43]. The addition of Mn from 13 to 45 mg/kg of DM increased plasma Mn concentrations on day 52 but had no effect on day 28 or day 84 in male lambs [44].
In this study, fecal mineral excretion significantly increased across treatment groups, suggesting that the level and source of Zn supplementation influenced its absorption in livestock. For instance, VanValin et al. [45] reported that lambs receiving Zn-sulfate supplementation at 40 mg/kg exhibited increased urinary and fecal Zn excretion compared to the control group. The study evaluated the effects of experimental treatments on the average stool consistency score and the incidence of diarrhea in calves. The results indicated that the experimental treatments did not significantly impact stool consistency in calves (p > 0.05). However, the addition of organic minerals was found to enhance stool consistency maintenance and lower the incidence of diarrhea throughout the experimental period. Supporting these findings, various researchers have indicated that supplementation with chelated forms of trace minerals in suckling calves can improve stool consistency and decrease diarrhea occurrences [46,47]. Proper inclusion of minerals in calf diets plays a vital role in promoting intestinal health, preventing infections, and enhancing growth performance. Zinc is particularly important for cell proliferation, maintaining cellular integrity, and supporting immune function. Immunoglobulins such as IgG, IgM, and IgA are crucial for defending against pathogenic invasions. These antibodies specifically target antigens and neutralize microorganisms, viruses, and other foreign agents, thus reducing diarrhea incidence and promoting calf health [48]. Zinc-methionine supplementation has been demonstrated to strengthen the intestinal mucosal barrier and increase villus height. Furthermore, organic zinc supplementation has been shown to decrease the incidence of diarrhea in newborn Holstein calves by reducing intestinal permeability, making it a promising strategy for managing diarrhea during the early calf-rearing period [49]. Additional studies examining the effects of different zinc sources on growth performance, immune function, and hematological parameters in suckling calves have confirmed that organic zinc supplementation can effectively decrease the incidence of diarrhea and enhance growth efficiency [17]. Mineral supplementation positively influenced plasma antioxidant indices in dairy calves and enhanced resistance to oxidative stress, likely due to the role of Zn and Cu in SOD activity. Minerals are essential for inflammatory and immune responses, and help prevent performance impairments in both humans and animals [50]. Nair et al. [32] reported that trace mineral supplementation improved antioxidant status and immunity in male calves. Several studies have demonstrated that supplementing dairy calf diets with trace minerals enhances antioxidant responses while reducing health issues such as diarrhea [46,47]. In the present study, significant differences in TAC were observed among experimental groups, with the highest values detected in Zn-supplemented groups (Table 2). Mn, Zn, and Cu are key components of mitochondrial SOD, functioning as antioxidants in the body [51]. These minerals help reduce free radical levels and mitigate oxidative stress [52]. ROS are commonly produced under various pathological conditions, leading to cellular damage through protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation [53,54]. Excessive extracellular ROS impair antioxidant defenses and weaken immune responses. Trace minerals such as Zn, Mn, and Cu play a crucial role in maintaining optimal immune function and antioxidant activity [55,56]. Thus, supplementing organic or inorganic minerals in calf diets may enhance antioxidant defenses during infections. Studies by Glombowsky et al. [46] and Soldá et al. [57] reported that SOD, GPx, and TAC levels were higher in mineral-supplemented dairy calves than in the control group. These findings suggest that mineral supplementation stimulates the antioxidant defense system, as demonstrated in dairy cows supplemented with minerals during the transition period [57]. In this study, the increase in antioxidant enzyme activity may be attributed to the higher bioavailability of Cu, Zn, and Mn, which serve as cofactors for these enzymes [58,59]. Recent research has highlighted the protective effects of Zn [60] and Cu [61] against oxidative stress through their role in enhancing antioxidant defenses, consistent with the results of this trial.
This study underscores the potential of organic mineral supplementation to improve the bioavailability of essential trace minerals, enhance antioxidant responses, and support the overall health of dairy calves during early development. Future research should investigate the long-term effects of these supplements on productivity, reproductive performance, and disease resilience, as well as their applicability across different livestock systems under varying management and environmental conditions. To maximize the impact of these findings, digital platforms could be leveraged to disseminate knowledge effectively [62]. Engaging formats such as visual content, educational materials, and collaborative discussions could help reach farmers, nutritionists, and other stakeholders, promoting evidence-based strategies for improved livestock health and management practices.

5. Conclusions

Supplementation with organic forms of Mn, Cu, and Zn (Mn-methionine, Cu-methionine, and Zn-methionine) increased plasma concentrations of these minerals in dairy calves over a short study period (21 days), likely due to their higher bioavailability and absorption. Additionally, Zn-Met supplementation significantly enhanced serum antioxidant indices (TAC, SOD), thereby improving the calves’ resistance to oxidative stress. These findings suggest that Cu-Met supplementation, in particular, represents a valuable nutritional strategy to optimize mineral bioavailability and support the health and development of dairy calves during the early postnatal period.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.H. and C.A.F.O.; methodology, R.V.; software, M.H.; validation, D.C.; formal analysis, M.S.M.; investigation, M.S.M. and M.H.; data curation, D.C.; writing—original draft preparation, G.B., M.S.M. and R.V.; writing—review and editing, C.A.F.O., S.H.E., R.C., M.L. and D.C.; visualization, R.V. and S.H.E.; supervision, R.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received a grant from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (No 3. 56846).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The animal study protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (IR.UM.REC.2022.049, approved on 10 July 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
Cu-MetCopper-methionine
Zn-MetZinc-methionine
Mn-MetManganese-methionine
ROSReactive oxygen species
SODSuperoxide dismutase
AIArtificial insemination
CTRControl group
CPCrude protein
DMDry matter
EEEther extract
ADFAcid detergent fiber
NDFNeutral detergent fiber
TACTotal antioxidant capacity
GPxGlutathione peroxidase

References

  1. Perillo, L.; Cascone, G.; Antoci, F.; Piccione, G.; Giannetto, C.; Salonia, R.; Salina, F.; Giudice, E.; Monteverde, V.; Licitra, F. Prevalence of Infectious Diseases on Dairy Farms Classified on The Basis of Their Biosecurity Score. J. Vet. Res. 2022, 66, 103–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Cavallini, D.; Giammarco, M.; Buonaiuto, G.; Vignola, G.; De Matos Vettori, J.; Lamanna, M.; Prasinou, P.; Colleluori, R.; Formigoni, A.; Fusaro, I. Two Years of Precision Livestock Management: Harnessing Ear Tag Device Behavioral Data for Pregnancy Detection in Free-Range Dairy Cattle on Silage/Hay-Mix Ration. Front. Anim. Sci. 2025, 6, 1547395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Felini, R.; Cavallini, D.; Buonaiuto, G.; Bordin, T. Assessing the Impact of Thermoregulatory Mineral Supplementation on Thermal Comfort in Lactating Holstein Cows. Vet. Anim. Sci. 2024, 24, 100363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. El-Seedy, F.R.; Abed, A.H.; Yanni, H.A.; Abd El-Rahman, S.A.A. Prevalence of Salmonella and E. coli in Neonatal Diarrheic Calves. Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2016, 5, 45–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Cho, Y.; Yoon, K.-J. An Overview of Calf Diarrhea—Infectious Etiology, Diagnosis, and Intervention. J. Vet. Sci. 2014, 15, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Rocha Valdez, J.; Gonzalez-Avalos, R.; Avila-Cisneros, R.; Peña-Revuelta, B.; Reyes-Romero, A.; Rocha Valdez, J.; Gonzalez-Avalos, R.; Avila-Cisneros, R.; Peña-Revuelta, B.; Reyes-Romero, A. Economic Impact of Mortality and Morbidity from Diseases in Dairy Calves. Abanico Vet. 2019, 9, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Heinrichs, A.J.; Heinrichs, B.S.; Harel, O.; Rogers, G.W.; Place, N.T. A Prospective Study of Calf Factors Affecting Age, Body Size, and Body Condition Score at First Calving of Holstein Dairy Heifers. J. Dairy Sci. 2005, 88, 2828–2835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Carulla, P.; Villagrá, A.; Estellés, F.; Blanco-Penedo, I. Welfare Implications on Management Strategies for Rearing Dairy Calves: A Systematic Review. Part 1—Feeding Management. Front. Vet. Sci. 2023, 10, 1148823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Barcelos, S.d.S.; Nascimento, K.B.; da Silva, T.E.; Mezzomo, R.; Alves, K.S.; de Souza Duarte, M.; Gionbelli, M.P. The Effects of Prenatal Diet on Calf Performance and Perspectives for Fetal Programming Studies: A Meta-Analytical Investigation. Animals 2022, 12, 2145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mammi, L.M.E.; Cavallini, D.; Fustini, M.; Fusaro, I.; Giammarco, M.; Formigoni, A.; Palmonari, A. Calving Difficulty Influences Rumination Time and Inflammatory Profile in Holstein Dairy Cows. J. Dairy Sci. 2021, 104, 750–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Hammon, H.M.; Liermann, W.; Frieten, D.; Koch, C. Review: Importance of Colostrum Supply and Milk Feeding Intensity on Gastrointestinal and Systemic Development in Calves. Animal 2020, 14, s133–s143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Ollivett, T.L.; Nydam, D.V.; Linden, T.C.; Bowman, D.D.; Van Amburgh, M.E. Effect of Nutritional Plane on Health and Performance in Dairy Calves after Experimental Infection with Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2012, 241, 1514–1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Cavallini, D.; Raspa, F.; Marliani, G.; Nannoni, E.; Martelli, G.; Sardi, L.; Valle, E.; Pollesel, M.; Tassinari, M.; Buonaiuto, G. Growth Performance and Feed Intake Assessment of Italian Holstein Calves Fed a Hay-Based Total Mixed Ration: Preliminary Steps towards a Prediction Model. Vet. Sci. 2023, 10, 554. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Olivera, M.T.; Mellado, J.; García, J.E.; Encina, J.A.; Álvarez, P.; Macías-Cruz, U.; Avendaño, L.; Mellado, M. The Influence of Calfhood Diarrhea and Pneumonia on Preweaning Growth and Reproductive Performance of Holstein Heifers. Span. J. Agric. Res. 2024, 22, 21154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Teixeira, A.G.V.; Lima, F.S.; Bicalho, M.L.S.; Kussler, A.; Lima, S.F.; Felippe, M.J.; Bicalho, R.C. Effect of an Injectable Trace Mineral Supplement Containing Selenium, Copper, Zinc, and Manganese on Immunity, Health, and Growth of Dairy Calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2014, 97, 4216–4226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Bates, A.; Wells, M.; Laven, R.A.; Simpson, M. Reduction in Morbidity and Mortality of Dairy Calves from an Injectable Trace Mineral Supplement. Vet. Rec. 2019, 184, 680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Chang, M.N.; Wei, J.Y.; Hao, L.Y.; Ma, F.T.; Li, H.Y.; Zhao, S.G.; Sun, P. Effects of Different Types of Zinc Supplement on the Growth, Incidence of Diarrhea, Immune Function, and Rectal Microbiota of Newborn Dairy Calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2020, 103, 6100–6113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Liu, J.; Ma, F.; Degen, A.; Sun, P. The Effects of Zinc Supplementation on Growth, Diarrhea, Antioxidant Capacity, and Immune Function in Holstein Dairy Calves. Animals 2023, 13, 2493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Carroll, J.A.; Forsberg, N.E. Influence of Stress and Nutrition on Cattle Immunity. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2007, 23, 105–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Lv, Y.; Peng, J.; Ma, X.; Liang, Z.; Salekdeh, G.H.; Ke, Q.; Shen, W.; Yan, Z.; Li, H.; Wang, S.; et al. Network Analysis of Gut Microbial Communities Reveals Key Reason for Quercetin Protects against Colitis. Microorganisms 2024, 12, 1973. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Glover, A.D.; Puschner, B.; Rossow, H.A.; Lehenbauer, T.W.; Champagne, J.D.; Blanchard, P.C.; Aly, S.S. A Double-Blind Block Randomized Clinical Trial on the Effect of Zinc as a Treatment for Diarrhea in Neonatal Holstein Calves under Natural Challenge Conditions. Prev. Vet. Med. 2013, 112, 338–347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Wei, J.; Ma, F.; Hao, L.; Shan, Q.; Sun, P. Effect of Differing Amounts of Zinc Oxide Supplementation on the Antioxidant Status and Zinc Metabolism in Newborn Dairy Calves. Livest. Sci. 2019, 230, 103819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Byrne, L.; Murphy, R.A. Relative Bioavailability of Trace Minerals in Production Animal Nutrition: A Review. Animals 2022, 12, 1981. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Feldmann, H.R.; Williams, D.R.; Champagne, J.D.; Lehenbauer, T.W.; Aly, S.S. Effectiveness of Zinc Supplementation on Diarrhea and Average Daily Gain in Pre-Weaned Dairy Calves: A Double-Blind, Block-Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0219321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Wen, Y.; Li, R.; Piao, X.; Lin, G.; He, P. Different Copper Sources and Levels Affect Growth Performance, Copper Content, Carcass Characteristics, Intestinal Microorganism and Metabolism of Finishing Pigs. Anim. Nutr. 2021, 8, 321–330. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Division on Earth and Life Studies; Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources; Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. Nutrient Requirements of the Young Calf. In Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle: Eighth Revised Edition; National Academies Press (US): Washington, DC, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  27. Van Soest, P.J.; Robertson, J.B.; Lewis, B.A. Methods for Dietary Fiber, Neutral Detergent Fiber, and Nonstarch Polysaccharides in Relation to Animal Nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 1991, 74, 3583–3597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Koakoski, D.L.; Bordin, T.; Cavallini, D.; Buonaiuto, G. A Preliminary Study of the Effects of Gaseous Ozone on the Microbiological and Chemical Characteristics of Whole-Plant Corn Silage. Fermentation 2024, 10, 398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Marcondes, M.I.; Jácome, D.C.; da Silva, A.L.; Rennó, L.N.; Pires, A.C.d.S. Evaluation of Raw Milk Quality in Different Production Systems and Periods of the Year. R. Bras. Zootec. 2014, 43, 670–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Enjalbert, F.; Rapior, S.; Nouguier-Soulé, J.; Guillon, S.; Amouroux, N.; Cabot, C. Treatment of Amatoxin Poisoning: 20-Year Retrospective Analysis. J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol. 2002, 40, 715–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Cavallini, D.; Mammi, L.M.E.; Palmonari, A.; García-González, R.; Chapman, J.D.; McLean, D.J.; Formigoni, A. Effect of an Immunomodulatory Feed Additive in Mitigating the Stress Responses in Lactating Dairy Cows to a High Concentrate Diet Challenge. Animals 2022, 12, 2129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Nair, P.M.; Srivastava, R.; Chaudhary, P.; Kuraichya, P.; Dhaigude, V.; Naliyapara, H.B.; Mondal, G.; Mani, V. Impact of Zinc, Copper, Manganese and Chromium Supplementation on Growth Performance and Blood Metabolic Profile of Sahiwal (Bos indicus) Male Calves. Biometals 2023, 36, 1421–1439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Hu, C.H.; Xiao, K.; Song, J.; Luan, Z.S. Effects of Zinc Oxide Supported on Zeolite on Growth Performance, Intestinal Microflora and Permeability, and Cytokines Expression of Weaned Pigs. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 2013, 181, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Roshanzamir, H.; Rezaei, J.; Fazaeli, H. Colostrum and Milk Performance, and Blood Immunity Indices and Minerals of Holstein Cows Receiving Organic Mn, Zn and Cu Sources. Anim. Nutr. 2020, 6, 61–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Thakur, M.; Deen, A.U.; Mani, V.; Bhakat, M.; Mohanty, T.K.; Mondal, G. Effect of Dietary Supplementation of Trace Minerals on Semen Production Performance of Sahiwal Bulls During Winter Season. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 2019, 36, 136–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Kumar, M.; Kaur, H.; Tyagi, A.; Mani, V.; Deka, R.S.; Chandra, G.; Sharma, V.K. Assessment of Chromium Content of Feedstuffs, Their Estimated Requirement, and Effects of Dietary Chromium Supplementation on Nutrient Utilization, Growth Performance, and Mineral Balance in Summer-Exposed Buffalo Calves (Bubalus bubalis). Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2013, 155, 29–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Malcolm-Callis, K.J.; Duff, G.C.; Gunter, S.A.; Kegley, E.B.; Vermeire, D.A. Effects of Supplemental Zinc Concentration and Source on Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Serum Values in Finishing Beef Steers. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 78, 2801–2808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Mudgal, V.; Garg, A.; Dass, R. Effect of Zinc, Copper and Selenium Supplementation on Growth Rate and Nutrient Utilization in Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Calves. Indian J. Anim. Nutr. 2008, 25, 272–277. [Google Scholar]
  39. Cazarotto, C.J.; Boito, J.P.; Gebert, R.R.; Reis, J.H.; Machado, G.; Bottari, N.B.; Morsch, V.M.; Schetinger, M.R.C.; Doleski, P.H.; Leal, M.L.R.; et al. Metaphylactic Effect of Minerals on Immunological and Antioxidant Responses, Weight Gain and Minimization of Coccidiosis of Newborn Lambs. Res. Vet. Sci. 2018, 121, 46–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Xin, Z.; Waterman, D.F.; Hemken, R.W.; Harmon, R.J. Copper Status and Requirement During the Dry Period and Early Lactation in Multiparous Holstein Cows1. J. Dairy Sci. 1993, 76, 2711–2716. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kincaid, R.L.; Chew, B.P.; Cronrath, J.D. Zinc Oxide and Amino Acids as Sources of Dietary Zinc for Calves: Effects on Uptake and Immunity. J. Dairy Sci. 1997, 80, 1381–1388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Wright, C.L.; Spears, J.W. Effect of Zinc Source and Dietary Level on Zinc Metabolism in Holstein Calves. J. Dairy Sci. 2004, 87, 1085–1091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Legleiter, L.R.; Spears, J.W. Plasma Diamine Oxidase: A Biomarker of Copper Deficiency in the Bovine. J. Anim. Sci. 2007, 85, 2198–2204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Masters, D.G.; Fels, H.E. Zinc Supplements and Reproduction in Grazing Ewes. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1985, 7, 89–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. VanValin, K.R.; Genther-Schroeder, O.N.; Carmichael, R.N.; Blank, C.P.; Deters, E.L.; Hartman, S.J.; Niedermayer, E.K.; Laudert, S.B.; Hansen, S.L. Influence of Dietary Zinc Concentration and Supplemental Zinc Source on Nutrient Digestibility, Zinc Absorption, and Retention in Sheep. J. Anim. Sci. 2018, 96, 5336–5344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Glombowsky, P.; Soldá, N.M.; Campigotto, G.; Volpato, A.; Galli, G.M.; Fávero, J.F.; Bottari, N.B.; Schetinger, M.R.C.; Morsch, V.M.; Baldissera, M.D.; et al. Cholinesterase’s Activities in Cows Supplemented with Selenium, Copper, Phosphorus, Potassium, and Magnesium Intramuscularly during the Transition Period. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2017, 26, 575–579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Tomasi, T.; Volpato, A.; Pereira, W.a.B.; Debastiani, L.H.; Bottari, N.B.; Morsch, V.M.; Schetinger, M.R.C.; Leal, M.L.R.; Machado, G.; Da Silva, A.S. Metaphylactic Effect of Minerals on the Immune Response, Biochemical Variables and Antioxidant Status of Newborn Calves. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 2018, 102, 819–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Jin, Y.; Ma, Z.; Gao, D.; Shan, Q.; Zhang, Y.; Chu, K.; Sun, P. Effects of different zinc sources on growth performance, serum immune and antioxidant indices and plasma trace element contents of newborn Holstein dairy calves. Chin. J. Anim. Nutr. 2021, 33, 3334–3342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Ma, F.T.; Wo, Y.Q.L.; Shan, Q.; Wei, J.Y.; Zhao, S.G.; Sun, P. Zinc-Methionine Acts as an Anti-Diarrheal Agent by Protecting the Intestinal Epithelial Barrier in Postnatal Holstein Dairy Calves. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 2020, 270, 114686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Ortunho, V.V. Revisão da literatura: Mineralização e perfil metabólico em ovinos. Pubvet 2013, 7, 776–884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Holley, A.K.; Bakthavatchalu, V.; Velez-Roman, J.M.; St. Clair, D.K. Manganese Superoxide Dismutase: Guardian of the Powerhouse. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2011, 12, 7114–7162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Suttle, N. The Requirement for Minerals. In Mineral Nutrition of Livestock; CABI Books: London, UK, 2010; pp. 1–13. [Google Scholar]
  53. El-Deeb, W.M.; Younis, E.E. Clinical and Biochemical Studies on Theileria annulata in Egyptian Buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) with Particular Orientation to Oxidative Stress and Ketosis Relationship. Vet. Parasitol. 2009, 164, 301–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Turunç, V.; Aşkar, T.K. The Determination of Oxidative Stress by Paraoxonase Activity, Heat Shock Protein and Lipid Profile Levels in Cattle with Theileriosis [Theileriosisli Sıǧırlarda Oksidatif Stresin Paraoksonaz Aktivitesi, Isı Şok Protein ve Lipid Profıli Düzeyleri Ile Belirlenmesi]. Kafkas Univ. Vet. Fak. Derg. 2012, 18, 647–651. [Google Scholar]
  55. Nockels, C.F.; DeBonis, J.; Torrent, J. Stress Induction Affects Copper and Zinc Balance in Calves Fed Organic and Inorganic Copper and Zinc Sources. J. Anim. Sci. 1993, 71, 2539–2545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Spears, J.W.; Weiss, W.P. Role of Antioxidants and Trace Elements in Health and Immunity of Transition Dairy Cows. Vet. J. 2008, 176, 70–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Soldá, N.M.; Glombowsky, P.; Campigotto, G.; Bottari, N.B.; Schetinger, M.R.C.; Morsch, V.M.; Favero, J.F.; Baldissera, M.D.; Schogor, A.L.B.; Barreta, D.; et al. Injectable Mineral Supplementation to Transition Period Dairy Cows and Its Effects on Animal Health. Comp. Clin. Pathol. 2017, 26, 335–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Smethurst, D.G.J.; Shcherbik, N. Interchangeable Utilization of Metals: New Perspectives on the Impacts of Metal Ions Employed in Ancient and Extant Biomolecules. J. Biol. Chem. 2021, 297, 101374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Aparecida Martins, R.; de Almeida Assunção, A.S.; Cavalcante Souza Vieira, J.; Campos Rocha, L.; Michelin Groff Urayama, P.; Afonso Rabelo Buzalaf, M.; Roberto Sartori, J.; de Magalhães Padilha, P. Metalloproteomic Analysis of Liver Proteins Isolated from Broilers Fed with Different Sources and Levels of Copper and Manganese. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 4883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Prasad, A.S. Zinc Is an Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Agent: Its Role in Human Health. Front. Nutr. 2014, 1, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Gaetke, L.M.; Chow, C.K. Copper Toxicity, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidant Nutrients. Toxicology 2003, 189, 147–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Lamanna, M.; Muca, E.; Buonaiuto, G.; Formigoni, A.; Cavallini, D. From Posts to Practice: Instagram’s Role in Veterinary Dairy Cow Nutrition Education—How Does the Audience Interact and Apply Knowledge? A Survey Study. J. Dairy Sci. 2025, 108, 1659–1671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Table 1. The ingredients and chemical composition of the starter.
Table 1. The ingredients and chemical composition of the starter.
Ingredient (g/kg DM)
Legume hay, mature91.9
Barley grain, dry, ground241.4
Corn grain dry, coarse grind313.6
Soybean meal, solvent 48CP233.6
Canola meal27.6
Wheat bran65.3
Calcium carbonate10.2
Sodium bicarbonate5.7
Sodium chloride (salt)5.7
Mineral vitamin premix 15
Chemical Composition
Dry matter885
Crude protein183
Metabolizable energy, (Mcal/kg)3.24
Neutral detergent fiber179
Acid detergent fiber95
Ash 65
Copper0.0407
Zinc0.1147
Manganese0.1988
1 Nutrient mix provided by the starter feed manufacturer per kilogram of diet: vitamin A, 500,000 IU; vitamin D, 120,000 IU; vitamin E, 1500 IU; vitamin C, 1000 mg/kg; Cu, 1000 mg; Zn, 9000 mg; Mn, 4000 mg; Se, 40 mg; I, 60 mg; Mg, 2500 mg.
Table 2. Changes in body weight, average daily gain, and dry matter intake in Holstein calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
Table 2. Changes in body weight, average daily gain, and dry matter intake in Holstein calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
PerformanceCTRG1G2G3Pre-MixSEMp-Value
Starter intake (g/day)766.80877.21685.4694.32803.90173.350.93
Initial body weight (kg)41.3241.9640.6840.5641.042.440.99
Final body weight (kg)51.0856.1455.4855.0052.783.280.80
Average daily gain (g/day)0.690.670.70.690.600.080.99
Feed efficiency (%)7.016.186.866.957.491.120.60
Average fecal score2.052.052.0722.040.030.52
Incidences of diarrhea (%)8.578.573.803.803.801.270.94
1 CTR: control group; G1: copper methionine (Cu-Met) group; G2: zinc methionine (Zn-Met) group; G3: manganese methionine (Mn-Met) group; pre-mix: Cu-Met + Zn-Met + Mn-Met.
Table 3. Mean fecal and blood mineral concentrations (mg/L) in Holstein dairy calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
Table 3. Mean fecal and blood mineral concentrations (mg/L) in Holstein dairy calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
ConcentrationCTRG1G2G3Pre-MixSEMp-Value
In plasma
Manganese0.00004 c0.0001 b0.0015 a0.00038 b0.0005 b0.8700.001
Zinc0. 042 d0.054 c0.083 a0.039 d0.075 b0.0010.0001
Copper0.105 b0.134 b0.107 b0.232 a0.126 b0.0130.0001
In feces
Manganese14.11 c27.10 a23.55 ab20.29 b20.50 b1.4140.0001
Zinc47.57 b49.36 b57.03 ab53.89 b70.33 a4.6510.0172
Copper6.40 b8.81 a8.50 ab8.64 ab8.08 ab0.7020.0196
a,b,c,d Values within rows with different superscripts differ (p ≤ 0.01). 1 CTR: control group; G1: copper methionine (Cu-Met) group; G2: zinc methionine (Zn-Met) group; G3: manganese methionine (Mn-Met) group; pre-mix: Cu-Met + Zn-Met + Mn-Met.
Table 4. Mean total antioxidant status in Holstein dairy calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
Table 4. Mean total antioxidant status in Holstein dairy calves supplemented with organic minerals 1.
Parameter 2CTRG1G2G3Pre-MixSEMp-Value
SOD0.00004 c0.0001 b0.0015 a0.00038 b0.0005 b0.8700.001
GPx0. 042 d0.054 c0.083 a0.039 d0.075 b0.0010.0001
TAC0.105 b0.134 b0.107 b0.232 a0.126 b0.0130.0001
a,b,c,d Values within rows with different superscripts differ (p ≤ 0.01). 1 CTR: control group; G1: copper methionine (Cu-Met) group; G2: zinc methionine (Zn-Met) group; G3: manganese methionine (Mn-Met) group; pre-mix: Cu-Met + Zn-Met + Mn-Met. 2 SOD: superoxide dismutase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; TAC: total antioxidant capacity.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Mortazavi, M.S.; Hajmohammadi, M.; Buonaiuto, G.; Colleluori, R.; Lamanna, M.; Cavallini, D.; Valizadeh, R.; Ebrahimi, S.H.; Oliveira, C.A.F. The Effect of a Pre-Mix of Essential Organic Minerals on Growth, Antioxidant Indices, and the Diarrhea Incidence in Dairy Calves Breed in Arid Climates. Ruminants 2025, 5, 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5020022

AMA Style

Mortazavi MS, Hajmohammadi M, Buonaiuto G, Colleluori R, Lamanna M, Cavallini D, Valizadeh R, Ebrahimi SH, Oliveira CAF. The Effect of a Pre-Mix of Essential Organic Minerals on Growth, Antioxidant Indices, and the Diarrhea Incidence in Dairy Calves Breed in Arid Climates. Ruminants. 2025; 5(2):22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5020022

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mortazavi, M. S., M. Hajmohammadi, Giovanni Buonaiuto, Riccardo Colleluori, Martina Lamanna, Damiano Cavallini, R. Valizadeh, S. H. Ebrahimi, and C. A. F. Oliveira. 2025. "The Effect of a Pre-Mix of Essential Organic Minerals on Growth, Antioxidant Indices, and the Diarrhea Incidence in Dairy Calves Breed in Arid Climates" Ruminants 5, no. 2: 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5020022

APA Style

Mortazavi, M. S., Hajmohammadi, M., Buonaiuto, G., Colleluori, R., Lamanna, M., Cavallini, D., Valizadeh, R., Ebrahimi, S. H., & Oliveira, C. A. F. (2025). The Effect of a Pre-Mix of Essential Organic Minerals on Growth, Antioxidant Indices, and the Diarrhea Incidence in Dairy Calves Breed in Arid Climates. Ruminants, 5(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/ruminants5020022

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop