Assessing Identity in the Recent Algerian Architectural Production: Case of Administrative Buildings of Béchar

Abstract

This research addresses the issue of architectural identity. The loss of architectural identity in recent Algerian architectural production is a well-established fact that is frequently criticized by both specialists and the public. While the concept of architectural identity is widely used, it is often based on an overly simplistic perspective, typically limited to a few formal and esthetic patterns. This study aims to analyze the problem of the loss of architectural identity by rigorously defining the concept and identifying the tangible factors that influence it. We selected the city of Béchar, focusing specifically on its recently constructed administrative buildings, to examine this issue. We hypothesized that these buildings denote a loss of identity. To achieve the study’s objective, we first developed a multidimensional model for building analysis based on a literature review. We defined three parameters: design references, climatic considerations, and the relationship with the urban environment. The results indicate a general loss of identity caused by the inadequate integration of these three factors. This research demonstrates that architectural identity can serve as a genuine issue, enabling us to address fundamental design problems. The creative valorization of precedents allows us to focus on ideas and principles rather than appearances. Integrating the climatic factor promotes building sustainability and reduces their energy consumption, particularly in challenging climates, like that of Béchar. Finally, urban integration can produce livable, attractive spaces.

1. Introduction

1.1. Definition of the Concept of Identity

In the era of globalization, preserving an identity rooted in culture and tradition is crucial. The concept of identity is broad and complex. It refers to the quality that distinguishes an object as unique and encompasses various aspects, including geographic, architectural, cultural, and personal identity. These aspects allow us to understand, evaluate, and describe the world around us.

Authors agree that the success of identity terminology is linked to modernity, which focuses on the affirmation of the individual [1,2] (pp. 2, 22). In traditional communities, individuals experienced themselves concretely as individuals did not encounter the identity problems we understand today. Thus, unlike in premodern (traditional) cultures, where identity is experienced spontaneously, contemporary subjects (individuals or societies) are actively involved in constructing their identity. The relationship with the past, as with other elements that determine identity, becomes operative.

However, the concept of identity is used in many different fields, including psychology, sociology, culture, religion, philosophy, history, medicine, computer science, and mathematics. Linguistically, the word “identity” refers to similarity: “the character of what is identical” or “two identical objects of thought”; to unity: “the character of what is one”; and to permanence: “the character of what remains identical to itself” [3] (p. 2). Therefore, identity corresponds to the qualities and attitudes that distinguish an object or person from others.

Salama attributes three underlying definitions to the concept of identity: (A) the permanence of a subject over time, unaffected by environmental changes below a certain level; (B) the notion of unity, which establishes the limits of a subject and allows it to be distinguished from others; and (C) the relationship between two elements, which allows us to recognize them as identical [4]. Thus, the three principles—permanence, distinction, and recognition—inform the identity of an object.

The literature confirms the complexity of identity, which arises mainly from the multiplicity of dimensions and factors involved in its formation. However, analysis and comparison of various definitions show that continuity and change are the two main characteristics of identity. Although identity is a new product responding to the needs of contemporary society, it also considers the past and the historical characteristics of society. In other words, identity is neither static nor immutable, but evolves according to situations and perspectives. It is neither regular nor homogeneous, but involves multiple components and forms [5].

This research aims to understand the concept of architectural identity and the factors that influence it. Next, several buildings that characterize the architectural and urban landscape of the city of Béchar will be analyzed based on a predefined model. This analysis will demonstrate how and to what extent the parameters of architectural identity were considered in designing each building. Then, classifying and comparing the results for all buildings will reveal trends in architectural production in terms of identity. The ultimate goal is to understand the tangible loss of architectural identity and to develop recommendations to address this issue.

1.2. Definition of the Concept of Architectural Identity

In architecture, identity is an important quality in design, as it helps create spaces that harmonize with the cultural and emotional needs of their occupants and establish a connection between people and their built environment. Architectural designs influenced by culture and tradition incorporate elements passed down through generations, such as local materials, construction methods, and esthetics. Buildings must be more than just functional structures; they can also symbolize cultural identity. For Charles Correa, the search for identity must give people greater sensitivity, not only to their environment, but also to themselves and to the society to which they belong. Identity is a process and therefore cannot be manufactured; it is a by-product that spontaneously derives from addressing real problems, not from introspection seeking identity as an end in itself [6].

According to Rapoport, identity is the ability to distinguish one element from another. It is the quality of the environment that does not change through circumstances [7] (p. 186). This quality can be physical, such as shape, size, decoration, or style. Alternatively, it can be specific practices or activities that take place in the environment [8]. However, when an environment or region has specific characteristics, the question of identity becomes particularly important [9]. Khaled Asfour emphasizes what he calls the deep gap between the world of academics and that of practitioners in the field of architecture. He believes that in many Arab countries, academics advocate traditional architecture, but because of rising competition, practicing architects attempt to offer what society aspires to: the prestigious image embodied in modern architecture [10].

1.2.1. Identity in Architectural Theories

The failure of the modern movement prompted many theorists and architects to advocate for a return to historical and local contexts. Consequently, research shifted its focus to themes such as meaning, history, and identity, replacing the modernity-associated emphasis on rational efficiency and abstract functionalism.

In the early 1960s, Kevin Lynch introduced the concept of “imageability,” which is similar to that of identity. According to Lynch, a city with strong imageability should appear well-formed, distinct, and memorable. Lynch believed that each city or neighborhood must possess unique identifying characteristics. Examining an environmental image involves recognizing its three fundamental components: identity, structure, and meaning [11]. In 1965, Robert Venturi published a critical article entitled “The Justifications for Architecture of Pop,” in which he presented a new vision of architecture in opposition to the rigid concepts of modernity [12]. Venturi accused modernists of thinking about architecture in terms of something else. He urged architects to pay more attention to tradition, how buildings are constructed, how they withstand the forces of gravity, how they respond to the climate, and how they can be used [13]. In 1972, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour published “Learning from Las Vegas,” in which they criticized modernists for neglecting context. They proposed instead an approach that defined the existing environment as a source of learning to produce architecture adapted to the specificity of place. The reaction against modernization was preservationism, in which anything old was valued over anything new. Thus, in 1975, Leon and Robert Krier assembled a morphological index of street and square types in their writings and proposals as an antidote to the CIAM concept of the city as a park filled with objects [14] (p. 382). In 1981, Norberg-Schulz introduced the notion of genius loci to describe the specificity of each place. In this sense, architectural identity is assimilated to the character of the place, which depends heavily on its genius loci [15].

Regionalist movements spread during the postmodern period as expressions of local identity, emerging as a response to the modern movement’s tendency to neglect local and cultural significance. These movements gained particular importance in Third World countries, where the effects of modernism’s break with the past are combined with an ever-increasing pace of development. Regionalism primarily considers a region’s identity and climate. Thus, Suha Ozkanstates: “In order to take the identity aspect into account, it is necessary to adopt a regionalist approach” [16].

Between 1983 and 1987, Kenneth Frampton developed his theory of critical regionalism. Though this theory critiques the uniformity of modernism, it does not reject the technical value and cultural possibilities that modernism has brought to human settlements over the past century. Rather, Frampton seeks an architectural language that reinterprets indigenous solutions while reflecting modernity’s technological capabilities [17].This interpretation of critical regionalism has been applied in the work of several international architects, such as Jørn Utzon (Figure 1).

Cristian Fernandez Cox developed the concept of “appropriate modernity” in 1984. This concept challenges the singularity of Western modernism by proposing the existence of several parallel modernisms, each with its own characteristics and history [18]. According to Cox, appropriate modernity does not mean rejecting modernism, but rather correcting and understanding it as an open idea.

William J.R. Curtis points out that the problem of integrating tradition and modernity is particularly relevant in Third World countries. There, new forms conflict with centuries-old building traditions and are often irrelevant to a country’s culture, natural landscape, and regional climatic conditions [19]. Curtis strongly opposes the simple reproduction of Western trends in these countries but acknowledges the importance of finding appropriate responses to specific places, cultures, and climates through regionalist ideals within modern paradigms. Consequently, in 1996, Curtis proposed the concept of authentic regionalism. “Authenticity suggests genuineness and probity—the opposite of fake. It implies forms based on principles, forms which avoid arbitrariness and are appropriate on a number of levels” [14] (p. 388). Cutis argues that such authenticity is evident in the works of Wright, Le Corbusier (Figure 2), Mies van der Rohe, Aalto, Kahn, and a few other architects.

Figure 1. Opéra of Sidney. By Bernard Spragg. From Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=70521604 (accessed on 6 January 2026) [20].

Figure 1. Opéra of Sidney. By Bernard Spragg. From Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=70521604 (accessed on 6 January 2026) [20].

Figure 2. Palace of Justice, Chandigarh, India. By Sanyam Bahga. From Wikimedia Commons, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Capitol_High_Court.jpg (accessed on 6 January 2026) [21].

Figure 2. Palace of Justice, Chandigarh, India. By Sanyam Bahga. From Wikimedia Commons, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Capitol_High_Court.jpg (accessed on 6 January 2026) [21].

While previous approaches advocate returning to history and local contexts to create identity-based architecture, Rem Koolhaas takes a completely different position. In his theory of “the generic city”, he suggests abandoning the concept of identity in favor of similarity and impersonal characteristics. According to Koolhaas, the generic city is “the city liberated from the captivity of the center, from the straitjacket of identity” [22]. Regarding the architecture of the generic city: “It is the resistant made malleable, an epidemic yielding no longer through the application of principle, but through the systematic application of the unprincipled” [22]. However, Koolhaas’s radicalism stems from a static vision of identity, which can be challenged by redefining identity as an open and dynamic process. Stephanus Schmitz described Koolhaas’s essay as a polemical manifesto and therefore considered it unscientific [18] (p. 21).

1.2.2. Identity in Architectural Practice

Alongside theoretical approaches that address the issue of architectural identity, several practical approaches aim to develop a local idiom, taking into account the cultural and climatic specificities and the traditions of the region where the project is located. These experiences have left their mark on the architectural landscape at all levels.

Amid the modern movement, Alvar Aalto (1898–1976) developed a language that aligned perfectly with modernist discourse, yet whose form remained distinctly Finnish [16]. The Mexican architect Luis Barragán (1902–1988) sought to preserve a mode of expression characteristic of Mexico while employing an architectural syntax associated with the modern movement [16]. Ricardo Bofill (1939–2022) rejected both old and new vernacular forms, instead seeking to reinstate the grandeur of classicism [17]. In his designs, Bofill returned to local cultures through adaptation to the terrain, soil, and climate (Figure 3).

Between the 1940s and 1960s, most countries in the developing world, especially Muslim nations, gained independence after a long period of colonization. Due to the uncertainties introduced by colonialism and modernity, these countries embarked on a quest for identity.

According to Suha Özcan, the Indian architect Charles Correa was one of the initiators of the abstract modern regionalism approach. He adapted the modernist principle “form follows function” to “form follows climate” [16]. Correa believed that the form of buildings should not be developed from their interior, but rather, should be governed by the forces of the natural environment. Climate thus plays a decisive role. In Egypt, Hassan Fathy (1900–1989) was the first in the Arab world to reject the Arab version of modernism, denouncing its cultural and ecological inappropriateness [23]. In his projects, he sought to integrate values derived from traditional society while remaining open to innovation. He always aimed to bring his expertise and knowledge to practicing architects. This scientific approach to tradition was evident in his projects throughout his career; the most notable example is the New Gourna settlement (1948) [24].Abdel Wahid El-Wakil (1972–1975), a disciple of Fathy, took a more pronounced traditionalist approach, devoting his work entirely to vernacular architecture and traditional building techniques [23]. He built more than eleven mosques in Saudi Arabia, including the Corniche Mosque in Jeddah, which was completed in 1986 and earned him the Aga Khan Award for Architecture [25]. The Iraqi architect Rifat Chadirji (1926–2020) explored the traditional vocabulary of Iraqi architecture and used it to address contemporary needs. His work is referred to as contemporary Arab architecture [23]. Jordanian architect Rasem Badran (1945) developed his design ideas based on the principle that traditional architecture is an indispensable reference for architectural projects [26]. This principle involves two processes of abstraction: visual and conceptual. Badran has completed a significant number of projects in various Arab countries; the most famous of which is undoubtedly the Palace of Justice (Qasr Al-Hukm) and the Great Mosque in Riyadh. This work earned him the Aga Khan Prize in 1995 [24].

In Algeria, the intention to produce identity-based architecture is evident above all in the work of architects such as Abderrahmane Bouchama, André Ravéreau, and Fernand Pouillon. Through several large buildings dedicated to science and culture, Abderrahmane Bouchama seeks to redefine the architecture of independent Algeria. He adopts a Moorish style, drawing from the Arab-Islamic architectural repertoire. Bouchama represents a new beginning after many years of denial [27].

André Ravéreau, a disciple of Hassan Fathy, places particular importance on context. He criticizes the importation of architectural models that cannot adapt to local natural and cultural characteristics. Ravéreau advocates for what he calls “situated” architecture, which is derived from both place and time. He accuses modern architecture of imposing its standards on the entire world [28] (p.130). He has received several awards for his work, including the Aga Khan Architecture Award in 1980 for the Mopti Health Center in Mali, and the Algerian Medal of Merit in 2012 for promoting the country’s heritage.

In the context of the Algerian Sahara, the works of Hany and Abderahman El-Miniawy are notable. The brothers have built several housing projects in Msila, Biskra, El-Oued, and OuledDjellal (Figure 4). These projects demonstrate the contemporary use of traditional construction vocabulary in search of a new architectural language, which is identified as a major objective of their design [29].

From 1953 to 1984, Fernand Pouillon constructed numerous housing projects, approximately forty hotels, university residences, libraries, post offices, movie theaters, and single-family homes. He sought to reconnect with tradition while acknowledging the contributions of modernity. Thus, he produced abundant architecture that was neither a reflection of Western ideology nor a pastiche of local vernacular architecture [31].

1.2.3. Previous Research on Architectural Identity

We reviewed numerous analytical scientific studies on architectural identity alongside theoretical and practical approaches. These studies primarily consist of scientific articles in which authors have developed processes to analyze the complexity of architectural identity. The goal is to define the parameters involved in shaping architectural identity. Our focus is on the Arab-Muslim context, similar to that of our case study.

Tarek Abdessalem developed an “Assessment Method” that enables the clear and systematic evaluation of identity expression in students’ projects [32]. Abdessalem concluded that expressing identity in architecture is based on three principles: continuity, distinction, and recognition. Each principle is defined by a set of criteria used to evaluate architectural products.

In another publication, Tarek Abdelsalam examines the relevance of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture (AKAA) in addressing the identity crisis in Eastern Arab cities [33]. Abdelsalam concludes that the AKAA’s objectives are well-suited to addressing the symptoms of the identity crisis in Eastern Arab architecture and lists the factors for recognition as follows: 1. Expressing climatic considerations, 2. Use of local building materials, 3. Impact of traditional architecture, 4. Expression of local culture and values, 5. Use of modern technology.

Abdulaziz Alzahrani identifies five components that shape architectural identity from two perspectives. The first is the concept of identity in architects’ work and how it is expressed. The second is how the public perceives and understands the architects’ work. Based on theoretical research, the author concludes that contemporary architectural works can be understood through the following five elements: 1. the conceptual idea, 2. form and figure, 3. construction technology, 4. materials used, and 5. the relationship with the environment [8].

Zohreh Torabi and Sara Brahman examine the factors that shape architectural identity in three sections: the terminology of the concept of identity, architectural identity, and a comparative study of contemporary architectural works [34]. Through content analysis, the authors identify seven significant factors that influence architectural identity: spatial organization, temporal organization, semantic organization, general design principles, form, and construction materials.

Salahaddin Yasin Baper Al-Aahwani examines how modernity has influenced the architectural identity of house facades in Erbil, Iraq. The study defines variables and indicators of identity by analyzing attitudes related to architectural identity. The methodological approach combines qualitative case studies with quantitative surveys. A checklist of variables provides a framework for visual analysis and surveys [35].

Yasser Mahgoub examines how cultural identity is expressed through architecture in Kuwait. He focuses on the strategies that architects use to convey the country’s cultural identity. His research is based on a survey of eighteen Kuwaiti architects’ opinions, which were collected through targeted interviews and standardized questionnaires. Examples of their projects were then analyzed to illustrate their perspectives on architectural identity. The study revealed a consensus that climate and the natural environment significantly impact architectural identity [36]. Thus, architectural responses to climate are essential to reflecting the country’s identity.

Alavi, S and Tanaka, T address the architectural identity of Herat, a city located in western Afghanistan. Their research is based on document analysis, case studies, and interviews with architects and local residents. Their findings suggest that Herat’s architectural identity is shaped by various factors, such as historical and cultural significance, building materials, environmental conditions, architectural guidelines and expertise, political dynamics, and the preferences of both architects and clients [5].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Parameters of Architectural Identity

Our issue is raised at the urban scale and concerns the architectural identity of the city of Béchar as a whole. Thus, neither architects nor the public were compelled to explore the interior spaces and functionality of buildings in order to address the question of loss of identity. As we have seen, the term “identity” refers to continuity and similarity. In order to contribute positively to the creation of the city’s architectural identity, buildings must share certain properties regardless of the specific task or function each building is intended to fulfill.

However, interrogating a building’s or a city’s architectural identity also requires assessing its representation in the collective consciousness of individuals and the community it serves. Consequently, a thorough and effective investigation into the architectural identity of the administrative buildings in Béchar necessitates surveying users’ perceptions. This presents a limitation of the present investigation. In view of the importance of this dimension, a subsequent publication will be dedicated to investigating the architectural identity of these edifices as perceived by both specialists in the field of architecture and the general public.

The building envelope, form, and exterior facades—collectively referred to as the “external aspects”—mediate the building’s interaction with its natural and urban environments. A building’s external aspects express its identity and directly influence the formation of the city’s identity. For this reason, our analysis will focus on the external aspects of buildings rather than their internal spatial and functional organization, which relates only indirectly to our problem.

Design references, climate, and integration into the urban environment can be grouped under the category of extrinsic or exogenous factors, as opposed to intrinsic or endogenous factors, which derive from the specific spatial and functional program, as well as the preferences of the designer and client. Designs that depend only on endogenous factors produce heterogeneous buildings with little connection to each other or to their location. Conversely, a design that relies exclusively on extrinsic factors limits creativity, leading to uniformity and monotony. Therefore, it is essential that building design maintain a balance between these two types of factors.

To understand the architectural identity of the analyzed buildings and achieve the objective of this study, we first constructed a multidimensional model for building analysis (

Table 1. Analysis model for the evaluation of the architectural identity (source: authors).

		Design References		Climatic Considerations	Relationship with the Urban Surrounding
		Properties Related to Tradition	Properties Related to Modernity
Properties	Orientation, implantation, Principles of mass composition
	Formal articulations
	Architectural elements
	Materials, Colors, textures
Results (possible values)		Superficial properties (SP) Essential properties (EP) No relationship	Superficial properties (SP) Essential properties (EP) No relationship	Integration—continuity Indifference Conflict- opposition	Integration—continuity Indifference Conflict- opposition
Interpretation		Define the design approach adopted

) based on a literature review.

Three dimensions were defined: design references, climatic considerations, and relationship with the urban surroundings. To focus on these three aspects of architectural identity, we assumed that all of the buildings under study were functionally and formally sound. In other words, we are not aiming to discuss the esthetic or functional qualities specific to each building; rather, we aim to assess the influence of exogenous design factors represented by cultural, historical, natural, and urban environments. We hypothesize that loss of architectural identity primarily results from a lack of attention to these factors. Thus, architectural designs that are esthetically and functionally sound in one location can quickly become insignificant in another. Finally, buildings may share several properties resulting from the integration of these factors.

This analysis model is based on the parameters of architectural identity and a list of architectural properties. Each building should be analyzed using this model. The analysis should determine if the project designs fully and effectively express the parameters of architectural identity. In other words, the analysis should verify that the building possesses properties that align with the predefined principles. Then, the analysis should reveal the correlations between these parameters to uncover the predispositions or tendencies that govern these designs. Finally, a synthesis should be developed to understand how architectural identity is influenced by adopting or neglecting these parameters.

The first dimension, considered the most evident a priori, is addressed by identifying and classifying the building’s various properties (from tradition to modernity, i.e., the criteria underlying identity). However, this investigation is not intended to be a simple classification of the building’s properties. Rather, it aims to determine the extent to which the building relates to each criterion.

To distinguish between essential and superficial properties, we have referred to the works of the English historian and architectural critic William Curtis [14,19,37]. Curtis seeks to draw a critical line between what he calls thin pastiche and genuine invention rooted in past principles. To understand a work, it is necessary to identify the qualities that transcend mere stylistic use. In other words, one must grasp the context, order, and impulses of the work, its resolutions or irresolutions, and its depth or shallowness of expression [37]. The various combinations of references to tradition and modernity depend on different design approaches, which are commonly referred to as “architectural styles.” (

Table 2. Summary of the different possible combinations between references to tradition and to modernity and the resulting design approaches (source: authors).

Tradition			Modernity			Definition of Design Approach
Essential Properties	Superficial Properties	No Relationship	Essential Properties	Superficial Properties	No Relationship
*	*				*	Reproduction of traditional architecture
*				*		Neo-traditional architecture
*	*			*
*	*		*			Abstractive approach
*			*
*			*	*
*	*		*	*
		*			*	Undefined style or imported style
	*			*
	*		*	*		Postmodern approach
	*		*
		*	*	*		Reproduction of modern

(*) Identified Property.

).

The primary goal in examining this first dimension is to define the design approach adopted for each building.

Essential properties include principles, ideas, themes, and spiritual concepts. Without these, architecture merely touches the surface and becomes simple decoration. Removing an essential property destroys both the building’s individual significance and its unity as a whole. Transposing an essential property from traditional or modern architecture typically requires creative processes such as abstraction, transformation, or adaptation [15] (p. 169). Properties are considered formal or superficial if they are forms, architectural elements, or decorations. Transposing such properties requires only passive displacement or a cut-and-paste approach [15,23].

A design approach that reuses the properties of traditional architecture with no relation to modernity can be called vernacularism [16], or, as we have termed it, a mere reproduction of traditional architecture. Similarly, a design approach consisting of a pure reproduction of modern architectural properties without regard for tradition or locality can be called internationalism, or, as we have termed it, a mere reproduction of modern architecture [16].

The combination of traditional architecture with modern methods, such as construction technology, materials, and equipment, is called neo-vernacularism or neo-traditional architecture [16]. Conversely, a design that is fundamentally modern but superficially adopts the vocabulary of traditional architecture is called postmodernism.

This approach may also be referred to as concrete regionalism [16], eclecticism, or explicit symbolism [38].

The combination of traditional and modern architecture is most fully realized when their essential properties are fused into a single design. In this case, the design approach can be described as abstractive [38]. This approach aligns with the concepts of critical regionalism [17], abstract regionalism [16], and implicit symbolism [38].

Finally, a building that does not exhibit any traditional or modern properties may be referred to as having no style or an indefinite style.

The second dimension focuses on the relationship between buildings and the natural environment. Since our investigation concerns the urban context, only the climate parameter is considered. Ignoring the climatic factor is another symptom of the identity crisis [30]. According to Charles Correa, climate helps determine form on two levels. The first level is direct and can be seen in the use of courtyards in hot climates or cross ventilation in hot and humid climates. The second level is more abstract: climate contributes to the definition of cultural models, which fundamentally determine architectural form [6].

There are numerous building properties that demonstrate the importance given to the climatic factor, and these properties are evident at all levels. Examples include the placement and orientation of the building, the selection of covering texture and color, the formal treatment of various components, and the choice of construction materials. Accordingly, based on the literature review, we identified three approaches to addressing the climatic factor in architectural design [8,31]. First, a building can have properties that allow it to integrate with the climate. It can be indifferent or unconcerned with the climate, or it can be in conflict with the location’s climatic characteristics.

The third dimension addresses the relationship between the building and its urban surroundings, particularly how it integrates into the urban space. Understanding architectural space requires an understanding of the urban environment. Attention should be given to the context of the architectural design and how it is exposed to the surroundings. Similar to the climatic factor, this dimension can be examined through the building’s formal and spatial properties. Based on research in this area, three ways to characterize this relationship were identified: integration or continuity, indifference, and contrast [8,34]. Integration occurs when slight changes are made to the urban context to accommodate the building; in this case, the form, space, technique, and material of the building respond to the urban environment’s language. When a building has little connection with its urban environment, the relationship is described as indifference. Such a building can be called an object-building or anti-urban building [39,40]. Lastly, a contrast relationship means that the building is intentionally separated from the urban environment and presents itself as something distinct.

2.2. The Administrative Buildings of Béchar as a Case Study

The cities of the Sahara form a distinct category. Due to their hot, dry climate and isolation within desert expanses, these cities are particularly susceptible to the uniformity and rapid standardization of current architectural and urban development, which leads to the loss of local characteristics. In this context, Mare Côte’s observation is significant: “The extensions are often carried out with complete disregard for traditional construction methods in terms of plans, materials, and layout. Here, we have northern cities transplanted to the south, which creates habitability problems. The absurdity of this development, which is designed for other climates, is that it produces intense light instead of the protective shade that is needed in the Ksar to shield people from the sun’s rigors during the hottest hours of the day...” [41] (p.117).

Béchar is the largest city in southwest Algeria. Located in the northwest of the Algerian Sahara, it is 950 km southwest of Algiers (Figure 5). Water and the palm grove were the origins of the first settlement in this area: Ksar Béchar. Due to its geostrategic location, hot, dry Saharan climate, and history as an important crossing point between the south (toward sub-Saharan Africa) and the north (toward the Mediterranean), Béchar was a major stop on a major trans-Saharan caravan and trade route. AlthoughBéchar appears modern due to its new infrastructure, its architectural and cultural heritage remains undeniable.

Like all Algerian cities, Béchar has undergone the renewal and modernization of its administrative infrastructure that Algeria has pursued since the 2000s. This has led to the construction of numerous public buildings for administrative purposes. However, recent architectural production in Béchar seems to undermine the city’s identity. In this study, we examine the city’s architectural identity through its recently built administrative buildings (from the 2000s). Our study focuses exclusively on administrative buildings because, compared to other types (such as cultural buildings), they benefit relatively from a certain conceptual freedom and their recent construction.

Table 3. List of the studied buildings (source: authors).

Sampling
Education Directorate	Investment Center	Housing Directorate	DUAC Bechar	Public Works Directorate
Algeria Telecom Building	Municipality Sub-Delegation building	Regional Trade Directorate	NAFTAL Building	Algeria Telecom commercial directorate
Energy Directorate	Environment Directorate	Tourism Directorate	Employment Directorate	Agriculture Directorate
Planning Directorate	CNAS BécharDjedid	Facilities Directorate	University directorate	Tax Center building
Trade Directorate	Post directorate	Culture Directorate	Trade Directorate	Customs Directorate

lists the buildings that were studied, along with their locations in Béchar (Figure 6). Most of the buildings are located in recent extensions of the city or on vacant land resulting from rapid and uncoordinated urban development.

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Design References

After analyzing the 25 selected buildings, we classified them according to their design approach. The results show that, of the six approaches identified in the theoretical model, only four were used, with very different percentages (Figure 7).

Table 4. Representative typologies of design approaches (source: authors).

Education Directorate—2015						Planning Directorate—2021
Design References						Design References
Tradition			modernity			tradition			modernity
-Entrance portico with three slender horseshoe arches made of GRC sheeting.(SP) -The three other larger arches of the same type, attached with their false pilasters on the facade wall, serve only a decorative function.(SP) -The type of arch used is drawn from the repertoire of Islamic architecture. (SP)			-Lightness(EP) -Regularity(EP) -Interplay of volumes (interpenetration of curvilinear and rectilinear curtain walls)(EP) -Extruded volumes -Asymmetry(EP) -Sharp edges(EP) -Perfectly regular windows(EP) -Transparency: curtain walls covering a large portion of the façade(EP) -Cantilever(EP) -Glass(SP) -Alucobond(SP) -Reinforced concrete frame structure(SP) -GRC panel(SP)			No relationship			-The layout is not determined by the boundaries of the plot.(EP) -Assembly of simple forms.(EP) -The building terminates with horizontal lines, emphasizing the finesse of the shapes used.(EP) -Curtain walls and Alucobond to the facades to give the building a contemporary appearance.(SP) -Regularity of the opening shapes(EP) -Transparency (curtain walls covering a large portion of the facade).(EP) -Cantilever.(SP) -Sharp edges. (SP) -Roof terrace(SP) -The use of bright, high-contrast colors.(EP)
Superficial properties			Superficial properties	Essential properties				No relation	Superficial properties	Essential properties
Postmodern approach is characterized by incorporating architectural elements from tradition into pure modern architecture.						Modern approach
Telecommunications Directorate						University Directorate
Design references						Design references
tradition			modernity			tradition			Modernity
-Symmetry(EP) -The projecting cylindrical and cubic volumes are slightly higher than the main body of the building to symbolize the towers (Bordjs)(EP) -The massive effect is produced by the extruded volumes marking the entrance and corners of the building.(EP) -Crenelated parapet reminiscent of the profile of the Ksours (EP) -Heterogeneous use of traditional architectural elements such as domes, steep tiled roofs, arches, and towers (SP) -Semicircular arches for windows and doors (SP) -Window frames accentuating the massive appearance (EP) -Wooden windows (SP) -Use of yellow and white colors (SP)			-Sharp edges (the corners of the building)(SP) -Large, unprotected windows(SP) -Glass panes(SP) -Smooth coating (SP) -Aluminum domes cladding(SP) -Materials (reinforced concrete for the structure, brick for the infill)(SP) -Reflective glass(SP)			-Symmetry(EP) -The effect of massiveness created by the massive panels that envelop the building and extend to the ground with heavy square-section piles. (EP) -Dominance of solidity over transparency.(EP) -Reinforcement of the corners with heavy panels accentuating the building’s stability. (EP) -Use of perforated concrete elements evoking the Mushrabiah.(EP) -Use of arches to crown the vertical panels.(EP) -Simplicity of the decor.(EP) -Use of yellow and white colors. (SP) -The square shape recalls the symbolism of this form in Islamic architecture(EP)			-The implantation of the building is unrestricted and determined solely by its shape. (EP) -The building’s orientation and height emphasize its character and distinctive role.(EP) -The building is elevated above the ground by means of a laterally open gallery. (EP) -The building rises above the ground by via a laterally open gallery. (EP) -The building opens to the sky by with a free and uneven profile.(EP) -Regularity and purity. (EP) -Large strip windows. (SP) -Simple décor (EP) -Materials: reinforced concrete for the structure, and brick for the infilling system. (SP) -Reflective glass(SP) -Aluminum (windows )(SP)
Superficial properties	Essential properties		Superficial properties			Superficial properties	Essential properties		Superficial properties	Essential properties
Neo-traditional style because it uses architectural forms drawn from tradition with modern materials and techniques.						Abstractive approach characterized by the fusion of tradition and modernity in a single design

presents representative samples of each category.

The most prevalent approach is modern architecture, accounting for 44% of the analyzed buildings. The postmodern approach is second, with eight cases representing 32%, followed by the neo-traditional approach with five cases representing 20%. Finally, the abstractive approach is represented by a single case, accounting for just 4%.

This research defines the modern approach as characterized primarily by the excessive use of curtain walls and colored Alucobond panels. This design approach involves more than simply importing images. It begins with the fascination that the images evoke in the designer or client and ends with a reproduction that is more or less similar. Importing these images and signs creates the illusion of acquiring the progress and efficiency suggested by this architecture. However, neglecting the cultural, socioeconomic, technological, and environmental realities of the context makes these buildings appear insignificant and imitative. Adopting these solutions also exacerbates deeper identity problems, such as associating technological underdevelopment, which is a fact, with cultural underdevelopment, which is an opinion [43].

However, the repercussions of misusing modern architectural imagery extend beyond individual buildings. At the national level, for example, the repeated use of the same images in both the north and south homogenizes urban landscapes and fails to appreciate the richness created by the natural and cultural diversity that characterizes the country’s various regions and cities. Similarly, given their challenging climate, architectural production in southern Algerian cities should be more resistant to importing designs produced in the north. In Béchar, for example, the widespread use of Alucobond panels, curtain walls, and large windows results in standardized buildings that differ only in superficial features, such as color and façade decoration. Finally, the quality of modern materials and techniques, such as production, installation, and maintenance, is significantly inferior to that produced and distributed by industrialized countries due to the established development gap.

There are many reasons to adopt these architectural solutions. First, architects, project owners, and the public are fascinated by the prestige and progress these designs convey. Second, project owners increasingly seek the esthetic qualities and relatively short construction times of these designs due to the abundance of construction and cladding industrial products and access to execution techniques.

By contrast, the postmodern approach differs from the modern approach mainly through the addition of heterogeneous elements borrowed from various traditional styles. These elements include different types of arches, domes, steep tiled roofs, and even columns and pediments. These elements are applied on purely modern facades to maintain historical continuity or express local identity. The postmodern approach is seen as a reaction against the austerity and uniformity of modern architecture. In this context, buildings classified as postmodern use architectural motifs with highly varied references. The incorporation of elements from various architectural styles, including vernacular (Ksours), Arab-Islamic (Moorish or Neo-Moorish) and African (Sudanese or Neo-Sudanese) [44], and classical architecture, reflects an eclecticism that seems more haphazard than intentional.

There are two main reasons why the postmodern approach used here cannot preserve architectural identity. First, the variety of reference sources comes from different, even foreign, contexts. Second, using these references results in merely superimposing iconographic signs onto modern facades.

Together, the modern and postmodern approaches account for more than three-quarters of the total. Both approaches are driven by an obsessive search for newness [45], embodying a complete visual, formal, and functional break from all architectural forms inherited from the past. Consequently, neither approach provides architectural identity for these buildings.

Twenty percent of the studied buildings were designed using the neo-traditional approach. Unlike the postmodern approach, this approach maintains a stronger connection with traditional architecture. It revitalizes traditional forms and spatial organization by combining contemporary materials and technologies with new functions. Buildings classified as neo-traditional are generally characterized by simple forms, traditional architectural elements, and symmetrical facades of no more than two stories, while the materials, construction techniques, and equipment are modern.

Although the neo-traditional approach can help develop a modern architectural vocabulary rooted in local cultural traditions, it remains limited in scale. It is not practical for tasks whose height and size have no equivalent in traditional models. This limitation renders it unsuitable for changes resulting from new tasks and developments in construction field.

Similarly, the postmodern and neo-traditional approaches, which represent two different ways of using historical references, are characterized by great heterogeneity. Their varied use of elements and models from different architectural styles resembles an arbitrary collection more than a search for identity or authenticity.

The final approach we identified is called the abstractive approach. According to the literature, it is also referred to as modern regionalism, abstract regionalism, or critical regionalism. This approach was used to design only one building: the University Directorate. The building’s cubic form, a common feature in Islamic architecture, symbolizes simplicity, purity, stability, unity, and absolutism [46]. The building’s design re-appropriates themes such as protection and privacy, which are strongly supported by traditional architecture. Similarly, the building reinterprets modern architectural principles, such as pilotis and transparency. Thus, the symbolism is implicit, achieved by updating principles and abstracting ideas rather than through superficial pastiche. Ultimately, this unique design fuses principles derived equally from tradition and modernity.

3.2. Relationship with the Natural Environment (Climate)

An examination of how the climate factor is integrated into building designs reveals that this parameter is largely overlooked. Consequently, 68% of cases indicate a conflicting relationship with climatic conditions, while 32% express indifference.

Table 5. Integration of climatic factor in design.

	Neo-Traditional	Postmodern	Modern	Abstractive Approach	Total
Integration	0	0	0	0	0
Indifference	5	2	0	1	08
Conflict	0	6	11	0	17
Total	5	08	11	1	25

classifies all analyzed buildings into three predefined categories that qualify the integration of the climatic factor (Figure 8). A more detailed analysis reveals a link between the designs approaches adopted (first parameter) and the climatic factor (second parameter). The following key relationships are revealed:

-

No building is defined as “integrated” with the climate.

-

All buildings classified as “modern” are in conflict with the climate.

-

All buildings classified as “neo-traditional” are indifferent to the climate.

-

Most “postmodern” buildings (75%) are in conflict with the climate, while the rest are indifferent.

-

The only building designed using the abstract approach does not deviate from the rule of ignoring climatic conditions.

Furthermore, representative samples of each category are presented in

Table 6. Representative samples of integration of climatic factor (source: authors).

Representative Samples
/	University Directorate—2011	Education Directorate—2015
	-The use of the same formal treatment for four facades with different orientations (southeast, southwest, southwest and southeast) demonstrates that the design is indifferent to climatic parameters.(Indifference) -The use of large, unprotected bay windows facing indifferently towards the South-east, south-west, north-east and north-west demonstrates that climatic parameters are no longer being considered. (Indifference)	-The easterly orientation shows no consideration for the climate.(Opposition) -The interplay of volumes reduces the building’s compactness by increasing the percentage of exposed surfaces.(Opposition) -The ratio of transparent to solid does not take into account the climatic conditions of the Sahara.(Opposition) -The alternation of transparent and opaque parts on the same façade demonstrates that climate parameters are not determining factors in this composition.(Opposition) -Curtain walls and unprotected east-facing windows produce thermal and visual discomfort (glare), thus putting the building in conflict with the climatic environment. (Opposition)
Integration	The analysis shows that the building design is indifferent to the Saharan climate.	The analysis shows that the building design is opposed to the Saharan climate.

.

Regardless of the approach adopted and despite the challenging characteristics of Béchar’s hot, dry climate, the analyzed buildings exhibit a negative response to the climate. The most common example of this is the excessive use of curtain walls that lack protective devices and are indiscriminately oriented toward the east, west, or south. Genuine architectural solutions suited to Béchar’s harsh climate have been abandoned in favor of relying solely on mechanical heating and air conditioning systems. This negligence has resulted in buildings similar to those in northern Algeria and will lead to high energy consumption without achieving the expected level of comfort.

Excessive use of glass in exterior façade cladding has become a fashionable trend. Its association with modernity and prestige appeals to designers, policymakers, and the general public. However, this design approach poses serious adaptability challenges, particularly in hot, arid climates such as in Béchar and other cities in southern Algeria. Inside buildings, large openings lead to thermal and visual discomfort, as well as high energy consumption, particularly during the hot season. Outside, large glazed surfaces negatively impact the urban environment through overheating and glare [47].

Indeed, there are abundant studies on the use of glass in building envelopes and its impact on user comfort and energy consumption in hot, arid climates. Various variables related to glazed openings are addressed and optimized, including dimensions, materials, orientation, and protection. Regarding the suitability of using glass in this context, most studies recommend reducing the dimensions of openings as much as possible [48] (p. 59).

The principles of traditional architectural design, which have proven adaptable to climate, are being abandoned in favor of a brand image that relies on transparency and mechanical air conditioning. This approach ultimately produces buildings that are not only energy-inefficient but also irrelevant to the historical, sociocultural, economic, and technological realities of their location. However, as previously mentioned, climate is a crucial determinant of architectural identity because it operates on two levels. The first level is technical and direct, while the second level is indirect. Climate contributes to the definition of rituals and cultural models that fundamentally determine architectural form. Neglecting this factor in the project’s architectural design will inevitably result in the loss of its identity.

3.3. Relationship with the Urban Environment

The analysis shows that nearly all of the buildings in the study corpus are object-buildings that have limited and indirect relationships with urban space. Seventy-six percent (76%) of these buildings are classified as “indifferent,” indicating a negative spatial relationship with urban space. Twenty-four percent (24%) are classified as “contrast,” describing architecture that intentionally seeks to visually stand out from its surroundings in addition to having negative spatial relationships. Only 4% demonstrate integration into urban space.

Table 7. Classification of analyzed buildings according to the integration into the urban environment and to their design approach (source: authors).

	Neo-Traditional	Postmodern	Modern	Abstractive Approach	Total
integration	0	0	1	0	1
indifference	5	08	5	1	19
Contrast	0	0	5	0	05
Total	5	08	11	1	25

classifies all analyzed buildings into three predefined categories that evaluate each building’s integration into its urban environment (Figure 9). A more detailed analysis enables us to link this parameter—the integration of the building into the urban environment—with the adopted design approaches (the first parameter).

Upon closer examination of the results, the following generalizations can be made:

-

All Neo-traditional and Postmodern buildings are indifferent to their integration into the urban environment.

-

Only one building designed according to the modern approach is integrated into its urban environment; the rest are divided equally between indifference and contrast.

Representative samples of each typical relationship between integration and design approach are presented in

Table 8. Representative samples of integration into the urban environment (source: authors).

Representative Samples
Tax Center	Planning Directorate	Regional Customs Directorate
-The building’s ground floor aligns with the street.(Integration) -The main entrance opens directly onto the street, providing easy access(Integration) -The building’s height ensures its integration into the urban environment.(Integration) -The materials and colors used, such as tinted glass and a scratched coating, fit into the environment. (Integration)	-The building is set back from the street behind a transparent iron fence, making it difficult to access.(Contrast) -The main entrance is distinguished by its white frame, position at the corner, and stairs covered in white marble and black ceramic. (Contrast) -The building incorporates foreign architectural elements, such as curtain walls and roof terraces that are not found on the site or in the city. (Contrast) -The materials and colors used have no relation to the building’s environment. (Contrast)	-The building is isolated behind a low, ceramic-clad wall topped with wrought iron. This building has no direct connection to the street (Indifference). -The choice of a corner building is indifferent to the characteristics of the plot, which has only one side facing the street. (Indifference) -The ratio of height to length accentuates the building’s horizontality, allowing it to blend into its environment. (Integration) -The shape of the building takes precedence over the urban site conditions. (Indifference)
The building fits spatially and formally into its urban environment. (Integration)	The building stands out from its surroundings both spatially and formally. (Contrast)	The analysis shows that the building has the qualities of an object-building indifferent to the properties of its urban site. (Indifference)

.

The analysis of how buildings are integrated into urban spaces shows that almost all are building-objects with minimal relationships to each other or their surroundings.

Despite the regular shapes of the plots resulting from a regular urban grid, the analyzed buildings are characterized primarily by their free-form shapes. Their placement creates negative, undefined spaces. When these buildings are not fenced, the resulting nooks and crannies lead to unsanitary conditions, deterioration of the base, and a lack of privacy in ground-level areas.

These buildings are designed to stand out from their surroundings. To achieve this effect, designers use finite, non-associative geometric shapes, veneers of heterogeneous architectural elements on the facades, a mix of materials, and bright, polychromatic colors. The buildings’ orientation is generally independent of the plot’s and urban site’s characteristics, and it does not favor any hierarchy between spaces. This affects both the senses and the mind due to the disparity among the buildings. Each building is self-contained and gives the impression of not belonging to the place.

The situation becomes even more critical when spatial disintegration and formal disparity are combined with the monofunctional nature of administrative buildings. The main cause is an approach that moves from the inside out. With this approach, intrinsic factors such as the spatial and functional program, esthetic choices, and budget allocation take precedence over extrinsic factors that govern the building’s integration into its broader context, including the urban environment. Consequently, urban space is reduced to the area left over from assembling buildings, which significantly alters the identity of the project and the city.

Another equally important reason for this problematic situation is the lack of work on urban form as an intermediate scale between the architectural project and the city. Consequently, the city is perceived as an arbitrary collection of disparate buildings with no meaningful connections to their surroundings. To address this issue, it is crucial to reestablish urban form as a tool that reconciles the architectural and urban scales. While existing urban regulations have proven ineffective, the urban project approach appears to offer promising solutions. This approach aims to integrate the project into its urban environment, corresponding to our third parameter of architectural identity.

4. Conclusions

This research examines architectural identity. The loss of architectural identity in recent architectural production in Algeria is a well-established fact that has been frequently criticized by specialists and the public alike. Addressing the issue of identity is very important because it allows for the simultaneous consideration of various concrete design problems that are often approached in a fragmented manner, dominated by creative impulses and personal preferences.

The first step in this research was to identify the tangible factors that influence architectural identity. To explore this issue, we selected the city of Béchar and focused specifically on its recently constructed administrative buildings. To achieve the study’s objective, we first developed a multidimensional model for analyzing buildings, drawing on previous studies in this field. We used three main parameters to assess the architectural identity of all the buildings in our study corpus: design references, climatic considerations, and integration into the urban environment.

The research results indicate that in the design of administrative buildings in Béchar, the modern approach is predominant, followed by the postmodern approach, then the neo-traditional approach, and finally the abstractive approach, which is scarcely present. The modern approach identified in this research is mainly characterized by the extensive use of curtain walls and related elements such as colored Alucobond panels, resulting in a complete break—visually, formally, and functionally—from previous designs. This conceptual choice is motivated not only by the image of modernity it projects but also by the speed and ease of its execution. The postmodern approach, in contrast, differs from the modern approach only through the addition of a few heterogeneous elements borrowed from various traditional styles, such as different types of arches, domes, sloping tiled roofs, and even columns and pediments. These elements are placed on purely modern facades to give them a pre-established identity. The neo-traditional approach, which is less commonly adopted than the first two, seeks to revive traditional forms or spatial configurations by assigning them new functions and equipping them with modern amenities. However, similar to postmodernism, administrative buildings designed using the neo-traditional approach are highly heterogeneous, as they draw on various architectural styles such as the Moorish or neo-Moorish, Sudanese orneo-Sudanese and even classical architecture.

The administrative buildings analyzed are based on heterogeneous and even opposing conceptual approaches, whose relationships to tradition and modernity are primarily formal. These relationships are mostly superficial, ranging from the simple application of architectural elements on the facade to the complete reproduction of certain models. However, architectural identity, as we have defined it, is an integrative process that derives from deeper relationships. Consequently, these approaches are increasingly controversial and do not emphasize the architectural identity of the city of Béchar.

An analysis of the integration of climatic factors into the design of the studied buildings reveals a complete disregard of this parameter, despite the region’s highly restrictive characteristics, namely its hot and dry climate. Regardless of the design approach used, the administrative buildings examined exhibit a lack of consideration for climatic forces, manifesting as either indifference or opposition. The most widespread and problematic example is the excessive use of “single glazing” curtain walls, which lack any protective features and are oriented indiscriminately toward the east, west, or south. The pursuit of authentic architectural solutions, meticulously tailored to the distinct climatic conditions of Béchar, is consequently relinquished in favor of a reliance on conventional heating mechanisms and, particularly, air conditioning systems. This negligence has resulted in the development of buildings that bear a striking resemblance to those found in the North, yet fail to achieve the desired level of comfort and energy efficiency.

Similarly, the analysis of building integration within urban space shows that almost all are building-objects with little connection to their surroundings. Formally, these buildings display a deliberate intent to visually stand out from their environment through convoluted and non-associative geometric forms. Spatially, they withdraw from the street alignment or are isolated behind boundary walls, creating negative spaces around them. The most prominent and frequently repeated type is the corner building with a cylindrical shape connecting two wings; this form is sometimes used arbitrarily, even when the plot characteristics do not warrant it. The predominance of object-building designs that negate and turn away from each other negatively affects the character of the street and urban space, diminishing the city’s imageability and identity.

In conclusion, the three parameters used to examine the architectural identity of administrative buildings in Béchar have enabled us to analyze the phenomenon of identity loss and, consequently, to highlight the relative shortcomings in the design of these buildings. In summary, these buildings are marked by an excessive desire for modernity or a superficial application of a few so-called traditional motifs, poor integration into the urban fabric, and indifference to climate conditions. However, as we have seen, identity is not an end in itself but a means of addressing real problems. This is especially relevant given the specific nature of the architect’s task, which involves formulating problems based on various, often contradictory, requirements. The rush to make formal and esthetic choices without considering the integration of the building into its broader context—including socio-cultural, historical, natural, and urban factors—is the main cause of identity loss. By adopting such negative approaches, architectural production shows a real detachment from the concrete realities of the place, which significantly affects both the identity of the building and that of the city as a whole.

5. Recommendations

This research has made it possible to overcome the ineffable nature of the concept of architectural identity by reducing its degree of abstraction [49]. Defining its tangible parameters was therefore a necessary step. However, the usefulness of these parameters extends beyond the critical evaluation of projects. The parameters of architectural identity can also be incorporated into teaching, design, urban planning tools, and specifications for architectural competitions.

For practicing architects, the three parameters of architectural identity we used, design references, climatic considerations, and integration into the urban environment, can serve as principles and guidelines to control and guide the design process, providing their work with architectural identity.

To address a construction task that reflects identity, it must be recognized that this is a long and challenging process that sometimes requires considerable idealism. However, to successfully integrate the three parameters of identity into the architectural design process, we recommend that designers adopt the following attitudes:

5.1. Regarding Design References

The architect must not yield to personal desires for self-expression, but should approach the subject with humility, a sense of continuity, and a solid understanding of the culture.

The architect must not succumb to current trends or society’s fascination with images of prestige and modernity conveyed by impressive architectural achievements from contexts different from that of the project.

The architect must not act merely as a technician serving the client’s personal needs at the expense of the collective interest and the building’s sustainability.

The architect should refer to traditional architecture not to directly reproduce buildings or fragments, or to borrow elements, but to derive principles of composition.

5.2. Regarding the Integration of the Climate Factor

The architect must examine the climatic characteristics of the region and the project site. They should understand the relationship between climate, building design, user comfort, and energy consumption by reviewing studies conducted in the relevant or a similar context.

The architect must have the necessary tools to assess the suitability of their design for climate integration. Depending on the project’s scope, they may consult specialized technicians to guide their design choices or at least to evaluate their relevance.

The architect must incorporate the climatic factor into a broader approach by considering the sustainability of their solutions.

5.3. Regarding the Building’s Integration into the Urban Environment

The architect must ensure the spatial and formal integration of the project within its urban context. A relationship between the building’s form, the characteristics of the plot, the views, the sequences, and the atmospheres created is essential from the beginning.

Spatially, the architect must avoid creating empty or undefined areas around the building. Therefore, the building should be positioned as close as possible to the plot boundaries; this approach also helps define the public space. The building’s orientation and accessibility must be considered to establish a sense of hierarchy and dynamism within the urban environment.

Formally, the architect must ensure that the building harmonizes with its surroundings while preserving its individuality and character. Analyzing the typology of architectural elements, materials, colors, and textures guides the architect’s decisions.