Designing for Special Neurological Conditions: Architecture Design Criteria for Anti-Misophonia and Anti-ADHD Spaces for Enhanced User Experience

Abstract

ADHD and misophonia are developmental neurological disorders that are currently increasing in prevalence due to excessive acoustic and visual pollution. ADHD, which is characterized by a lack of attention and excessive impulsive hyperactivity, and misophonia, which is hypersensitivity to sounds accompanied by a severe emotional and psychological reaction, are both affected by the user’s spatial environment to a great extent. Spatial design can contribute to increasing or decreasing these unfavorable sensory triggers that affect individuals with ADHD and/or Misophonia. However, the role of architectural spatial design as a therapeutic approach to alleviate the symptoms of Misophonia and ADHD has never been proposed before in the literature, despite its accumulative and chronic effects on the user’s experience in everyday life in terms of well-being and productivity. Therefore, the current work discusses this problem of neglecting the potential effect of architectural spatial design on alleviating Misophonia and ADHD. Thus, the objective of the current work is to propose customized architectural spatial design as a therapeutic approach to alleviate Misophonia and ADHD through adopting the compatible architectural trends of minimal and metaphysical architecture. The methodology of the current work includes a theoretical proposal of this customized architectural spatial design for alleviating these two special neurological conditions. This includes introducing and analyzing these two neurological conditions and their relation to and interaction with architectural spatial design, analyzing minimal and metaphysical architectural trends employed in the proposed therapeutic architectural design, and then proposing augmented and virtual reality as auxiliary add-ons to the architectural spatial design to boost its therapeutic effect. Minimal architecture achieves the “no emotion” criteria through reduced forms, patterns, and colors and adopts simple geometry and natural materials to reduce sensory stressors or stimuli, in order to alleviate the loss of attention and distraction prevalent in those with ADHD, as well as allowing the employment of acoustic materials to achieve acoustic comfort and noise blockage for Misophonia relief. Metaphysical architecture leads the hierarchy of sensory experience through the symbolistic, dynamic, and enigmatic composition of forms and colors, which enhance the spatial analysis and cognitive capacities of the inhabitants. Meanwhile, the use of customized virtual and augmented reality environments is an effective add-on to minimal and metaphysical architectural spaces thanks to its proven therapeutic effect in alleviating various neurological disorders and injuries. At this level of intervention, VR/AR can be used as an add-on to minimal-architecture design, to simulate varied scenarios, as minimal design offers a clean canvas for simulating these varied virtual environments. The other option is to build these customized VR/AR scenarios around a specific architectural element as an add-on metaphysical architecture design to lead the sensory experience and enable the user to detach from the physical constraints of the space. AI-generated designs were used as a proof of concept for the proposed customized architectural spatial design following minimal and metaphysical architecture, as well as to provide AR and VR scenarios as add-on architecture to enhance the therapeutic effect of these architectural spaces for Misophonia and ADHD patients. Furthermore, the validity of VR/AR as a therapeutic approach, alongside the customized architectural design, was discussed, and it was concluded that this study proves the need for extended clinical studies on its efficiency in the long run, which will be conducted in the future.

1. Introduction: Research Problem, Objectives, Scope, and Limitations

Misophonia and ADHD are two neurological disorders that are widely known to be affected by the user’s surrounding environment and space. Both of them are triggered by visual and/or acoustic stimuli that affect the concentration, cognition, and productivity of the space’s inhabitants, affecting their well-being in the long run. To date, and to our knowledge, architectural spatial design has never been considered as a possible therapeutic approach for these two neurological conditions. In the literature, the adoption of specific architectural trends, such as minimalism and metaphysical architecture, as design criteria for building a therapeutic space for individuals with these two neurological conditions has never been proposed before. This is despite the chronic and accumulated effects of architectural spaces on their inhabitants’ well-being, productivity, and even behavior that has been reported in the literature [1]. Therefore, the current work proposes the application of specific architectural trends in architectural spaces as a therapeutic approach to alleviate the symptoms of Misophonia and ADHD. This is achieved by following a theoretical analytical methodology where, first, Misophonia and ADHD are defined and analyzed in relation to possible triggers and stimuli in an architectural space. The proposed method of employing minimal and metaphysical architecture is theoretically analyzed by defining these two architectural trends and their design characteristics and assessing how they would address the special neurological needs of Misophonia and ADHD patients. Then a further level of this therapeutic approach is proposed by employing virtual and augmented reality as add-ons to the architectural spaces to extend the user’s spatial experience beyond physical constraints, enhance their spatial cognitive capacity, and lead the sensory experience in the space. This aims to enhance the efficiency of the proposed therapeutic approach.

In the current work, only the theoretical approach will be presented as a proof of concept, due to the need for further study before clinical experimentation using this approach on ADHD and Misophonia patients. Moreover, clinical experiments on humans require ethical considerations and psychological and physiological measures that cannot be accommodated in the current work due to length and scope constraints. Thus, a future study will be dedicated to clinical experimentation on the proposed approach for customizing architectural spatial design for addressing the special neurological needs of people with Misophonia and ADHD.

1.1. What Is Misophonia

Misophonia is defined as an extreme emotional reaction to certain everyday sounds that the majority would ignore easily. It is considered a widely spread neurological condition that affects one in every five people according to [2], leading to stress, anxiety, and reduced productivity. The main triggers are sounds of eating, nose and throat sounds, and repetitive environmental sounds like keyboard tapping and rustling paper. Individuals with Misophonia experience an intense feeling of disgust, anger, distress, or panic that escalates while the sound is still present. This can happen even when the sound is at a very low volume.

Moreover, trigger sounds can expand to include vocal triggers, especially the consonant sounds of S and P, but also vowel sounds, gravelly voices, whispering, specific words, muffled talking, several people talking at once, TV through walls, singing, humming, whistling, bass through walls, door slamming, refrigerators running, hair dryers, nail clipping, foot shuffling, heavy footsteps, joint cracking, scratching, ticking clocks, pipes knocking, babies crying, typing, mouse clicks, page flipping, pen clicking, pen tapping, and tapping on a desk.

But sounds are not the only triggers. It has been reported that some Misophonia patients are triggered by visual triggers, such as jaw movement (chewing), a hand touching the face, scrolling, pointing, leg jiggling, hair twirling, and drumming fingers.

These triggers provoke physical sensations, including a racing heart, shortness of breath, tension, and sometimes an unwanted groinal response. They often describe a feeling of being trapped, helpless, and out of control when they cannot get away from these sounds [3].

In the brain of a Misophonia patient, when a trigger sound is heard, the auditory cortex detects the sound. The limbic system, which controls emotions, overreacts, and the amygdala triggers a fight-or-flight response. This results in an intense emotional reaction. Neacsiu et al., 2022, were able to develop a chart reporting the specific functional sites in a Misophonia patient’s brain which are responsible for this reaction [4]. Similarly, Schröder et al., 2019, exhibited statistical maps showing increased activation in patients during a Misophonic event in three regions of interest: the Right Insula, Right Anterior Cingulate Cortex, and Right Superior Temporal Cortex. The Anterior Insula is involved in processing emotions and bodily sensations; the Anterior Cingulate Cortex plays a role in emotion formation and processing, learning, and memory; and the Superior Temporal Cortex is associated with processing sounds and auditory information [5].

These studies prove that Misophonia is not a personal or voluntary response to sounds that can be avoided, but it is a physiological and a neurological condition that affects the everyday lives of patients who experience it.

Unfortunately, to date, there is no unified therapeutic approach that can cure or alleviate the symptoms of Misophonia. The two main approaches are blocking triggers or dealing with reactions. In the first approach the triggers are alleviated or blocked by sound-canceling devices and techniques—such as noise-canceling headphones, and acoustic insulation through porous and textured/non-reflective materials (for reduced sound reflection, deflection, or amplification)—or by introducing sound curtains, such as white, brown, or pink noise curtains, and sound systems.

The second approach is CBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy), which helps reframe the patient’s reactions after being exposed to a trigger [6,7,8].

CBT incorporates various methods that depends on spatial design; for example, minimalism is a favorable architectural trend to apply in the spaces where misophonia patients conduct their activities, especially those that require a high level of concentration. Minimalism depends on simplified materials textures and colors, and no ornamentation, which supports reducing visual and acoustic stimuli or triggers that might provoke typical Misophonia reactions. This is also supported by color psychology research, which indicates that certain hues can promote relaxation and positively influence emotional well-being. For example, exposure to green has been associated with physiological relaxation. A study observed significant decreases in oxyhemoglobin concentrations in the frontal lobe when participants viewed green plants, suggesting a calming effect. This explains why “biophilia” which is defined as a tendency to seek connection with plants and nature, was proven to relieve anxiety and combat stress [9,10]. Similarly, cool colors, such as blue and green, have been found to evoke comfort and relaxation. Research exploring the impact of color saturation on brainwave patterns noted that these hues can induce calming effects [11,12].

A more advanced method of CBT to alleviate the symptoms of Misophonia is CBT Aided with Virtual and Augmented Reality. Virtual reality (VR) is the computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional image or environment that can be interacted with in a seemingly real or physical way by a person using special electronic equipment, such as a helmet with a screen inside or gloves fitted with sensors, while augmented reality is an interactive experience that enhances the real world with computer-generated perceptual information. Using software, apps, and hardware such as AR glasses, augmented reality overlays digital content onto real-life environments and objects [13]. Virtual reality applications have been explored as tools for relaxation and stress reduction. One notable example is the “Calm Place” app developed by Mimerse, which offers immersive nature environments designed to promote relaxation. In a quasi-randomized trial, patients used the “Calm Place” app through a wireless VR headset. The app provided soothing nature scenes with customizable settings, such as different times of day and weather conditions, along with guided relaxation meditations. This study demonstrated the potential of VR-based interventions like “Calm Place” to create calming experiences for individuals in clinical settings [14].

Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising tool in the treatment and rehabilitation of various neurological and physical disorders. Its immersive and interactive nature offers unique opportunities for therapeutic interventions. For example, in Stroke Rehabilitation, VR has been effectively utilized to improve upper limb function and balance in stroke patients. By engaging patients in virtual activities and therapeutic exercises, VR was found to promote neurological recovery and enhance motor skills [15]. Similarly, VR has been used as a therapeutic tool for Parkinson’s Disease, where it has shown promise in enhancing the functional abilities of its patients [16]. Moreover, multiple sclerosis patients have benefited from VR interventions aimed at improving functional mobility and balance [17]. VR has also been used for Lower Extremity Rehabilitation through VR-based physical therapy programs [18], for pain management by employing VR as a distraction tool to manage pain during physical therapy sessions, and in Cognitive Rehabilitation to train the memory and improve the attention spans of patients with neurological impairments.

Although these VR neuro-therapeutic applications have proven their efficiency, as reported in the literature, employing them as part of architectural spatial design on a larger scale requires further validation. This will be discussed further in the spatial design criteria for anti-Misophonia architecture.

1.2. What Is ADHD

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development [19]. Approximately 5% of children and 2.5% of adults globally are affected by ADHD, where it is more commonly diagnosed in males than females, with a ratio of approximately 2:1 in children [20].

The causes of ADHD vary in terms of genetic factors (since ADHD has a strong genetic component, with heritability estimates around 74%) and environmental factors (prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke, alcohol, and lead; low birth weight; and psychosocial adversity are associated with increased risk). In addition, ADHD is associated with neurobiological factors such as alterations in dopamine neurotransmission and structural brain differences [20].

Diagnosing ADHD can be a bit challenging, since it shares some symptoms with various other conditions. These include anxiety, depression, learning disorders, and even autism spectrum disorder [21].

However, there are some psychological and neurological tests that help in diagnosing ADHD. For example, diagnosis based on criteria outlined in the DSM-5, requiring symptoms to be present for at least six months and to impair functioning in multiple settings [22]. Others include the Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Rating Scale (VADRS) and the Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS), which are commonly used for evaluation [23].

Just like Misophonia, ADHD patients experience physiological changes in the brain, as manifested in three-dimensional, high-resolution MRI images of the brains of ADHD patients, exhibiting reductions in the size of specific areas within the frontal and temporal lobes [24].

Generally, the clear symptoms of ADHD are categorized into Cluster A, Inattention, and Cluster B, Hyperactivity–Impulsivity. The symptoms of ADHD Inattention manifest as difficulty with sustained attention; difficulty breaking down large projects; losing objects; forgetfulness; avoidance of tasks requiring sustained attention; distractibility; overlooking details; spacing in conversations; and appearing not to listen. Meanwhile, the signs of Hyperactivity–Impulsivity are excessive talking; fidgeting; difficulty sitting still; difficulty with quiet; difficulty engaging in leisure activities; difficulty resting; intruding on or interrupting others; restlessness (can be internal); impatience and difficulty waiting for one’s turn [25,26,27,28].

It is increasingly recognized that the contribution of blue screens and social media to developing ADHD is due to increased distractibility and attention problems, as social media platforms are designed to be fast-paced and highly engaging, with frequent notifications and short-term content that can reduce users’ ability to focus for extended periods. A study published in [29] found that adolescents with high-frequency social media use were more likely to develop symptoms of ADHD over time. Social media use also contributes to dopamine dysregulation, which is linked to the development of ADHD symptoms, since dopamine is the brain’s reward chemical. Social media use, particularly excessive scrolling and “likes,” may contribute to reward-seeking behaviors that resemble impulsivity seen in ADHD. Montag et al., 2019, suggest that excessive screen time can alter dopamine-related pathways in the brain [30].

Moreover, social media use contributes to sleep disruption, which is a known factor that worsens ADHD symptoms. Studies [31] indicate that late-night social media use can disrupt sleep patterns, leading to increased inattention and impulsivity.

In addition, social media’s role in overstimulation and cognitive overload due to constant engagement with multiple sources of information (videos, messages, and ads) can overload cognitive resources, making it harder to maintain attention. This overstimulation may mimic or worsen ADHD-like behaviors in people already predisposed to attention issues.

While social media can lead to worsened ADHD symptoms or even lead to the development of ADHD in predisposed individuals, people with ADHD may be even more vulnerable to excessive social media use due to difficulties with self-regulation. El Archi et al., 2022, shows a correlation between ADHD symptoms and problematic internet use [32].

Treatment approaches for ADHD other than pharmacological interventions—which depend on stimulant medications and have proven their negative effects in the long term—include behavioral therapies and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), similarly to Misophonia.

CBT can employ architectural spatial design for identifying the sensory experience hierarchy, where reduced distraction and pre-empting, as well as reduced cognitive overload, can be achieved through minimal architecture. In addition to leading the sensory experience through metaphysical architecture [23], which will be explained in detail in the following section.

Other emerging therapeutic approaches depend on personalized treatment plans and integrated healthcare services to address the diverse needs of individuals with ADHD. For instance, virtual reality (VR) is showing promise in helping to manage and treat ADHD through attention training and cognitive therapy thanks to the proven capacity of customized VR environments to simulate real-world scenarios while tracking a person’s focus, helping them to practice attention control. The literature suggest that VR-based cognitive training improves sustained attention, working memory, and impulse control in ADHD patients [33,34]. Moreover, VR-based games and exercises encourage planning, organization, and self-control in a fun, engaging way, which can reduce symptoms of poor executive function and impulse control. For instance, Romero-Ayuso et al. (2021) reviewed clinical trials using immersive VR classroom environments (e.g., virtual continuous performance tests), concluding that these VR setups offer greater ecological validity and user engagement compared to traditional tasks and are effective in training attention, memory, and executive function in children with ADHD [34], in addition to helping individuals learn to regulate their responses in a safe and adaptive setting [35,36,37].

Thus, these physical and digital-based therapeutic approaches might offer a non-pharmaceutical intervention to limit or cure the symptoms of ADHD as well as Misophonia. In the following sections these two levels of customized spatial architectural design interventions will be analyzed to understand their possible impact on healing or limiting the symptoms of Misophonia and ADHD.

2. Methodology

Misophonia and ADHD are common developmental neurological disorders that affect patients’ concentration, productivity, and well-being in the long run, resulting in anxiety and chronic stress, which lead to more physiological and psychological drawbacks including heart disease, digestive issues, headaches, muscle pain, and sleep problems [38]. This implies that misophonia and ADHD not only affect economic sustainability by affecting the productivity rate and quality of work of the individuals experiencing them, but also affect human health sustainability in the long run. These disorders affect a considerable portion of society, and their prevalence has been increasing lately, as detailed in the Section 1. Therefore, these two specific neurological disorders are the main scope of the current research study, since they are also both medical conditions that physiologically affect the morphology and functioning of the brains of patients, as proven in the literature.

Designing spaces for anxiety-and stress-relief or for overall mental well-being is a general topic that has been proposed in the literature before, mainly by employing biophilic design [9,39]. However, the two specific neurological disorders in the current work, Misophonia and ADHD, are more complex than the usual stress or anxiety that can arise in work or indoor spaces; these are neurological disorders that produce anxiety and stress as a side effect of the main problem, which is hypersensitivity to sounds and/or hyperactivity and lack of attention. Thus, the generalized design criteria for anxiety relief do not cover the needs or alleviate the causes and consequent symptoms of ADHD and Misophonia. Hence, the current work focused on these two specific neurological disorders due to their effect on productivity, health, and economic sustainability. This topic has never been addressed in the literature to date. Moreover, the method proposed in the current research based on employing the specific architectural trends of minimalism and metaphysical architecture has never been presented before. Therefore, the current part of the Section 2 will analyze the design criteria and characteristics of minimalism and metaphysical architecture and why they can provide a solution for designing therapeutic architectural spaces specifically for Misophonia and ADHD patients.

The methodology in the current work follows a theoretical, analytical, deductive approach as a first step, before conducting clinical experiments on the proposed method. This is justified by the need for a multidisciplinary team of architects, VR/AR designers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and physicians; advanced imagery and measuring instruments such as real-time MRI; and long-term measurements of the effects of the proposed customized spatial design on Misophonia and ADHD patients, which falls outside of the length and scope of the current work, and will be addressed in a future study.

Moreover, the scope of application proposed in the current work is relevant to the everyday life activities of an average person, since misophonia and ADHD patients do not require hospitalization in general, and these two disorders are common and affect many people, as reported in the literature and in the Section 1. Therefore, the proposed application is the interior spatial design of a student’s room, since studying is an activity that requires attention and concentration, and is consequently one of the activities most challenged and affected by Misophonia and ADHD.

2.1. Minimal and Metaphysical Architecture in Designing Therapeutic Spaces for Special Neurological Needs (First Level of Intervention)

The point of novelty in the current work is the proposal of architectural spatial design as an essential therapeutic practice that can no longer be neglected or overlooked. Despite the considerable yet recent research interest in employing VR and AR in therapeutic practices for many neurological conditions, as mentioned above, the physical architectural design of the space is yet to be acknowledged, tested, and proven in these cases. Thus, the following section proposes the use of two architectural trends, minimal and metaphysical architecture, as the first level of therapeutic intervention in architectural design for the special neurological conditions of Misophonia and ADHD. This is supported by deductive evidence that these trends reduce stressors or stimuli in the spatial environment, thus meeting the “No Emotions” criteria and leading the sensory–cognitive experience in the space.

2.1.1. Minimal Architecture (The “No Emotions” Criteria)

The “no emotions” criteria in minimal architecture reflects a deliberate rejection of personal expression and subjective interpretation [40]. This principle emphasizes objectivity, clarity, and the elimination of excess. Minimal architecture strips away narrative and gesture, focusing instead on pure form, repetition, and material presence to avoid evoking emotional responses. Similarly, minimal architecture prioritizes functionality, geometric simplicity, and the absence of ornamentation, seeking to create spaces that are neutral and unintrusive [41]. This detachment from emotion aligns with the minimalist pursuit of universality and truth through reduction [42], allowing the viewer or user to experience the work directly and without imposed meaning. Figure 1 exhibits one of the most famous buildings employing minimal architecture, the Neundorf House in Spain, exhibiting simple, straight geometries, a simplified color pallet, and the absence of patterns and ornamentation.

In this sense, minimal architecture creates a neutral space with fewer distractions in the form, pattern, and color. This allows for the use of functional materials that can enhance the acoustic comfort in the space, such as acoustic insulation materials as well as reducing stress by reducing the visual stimuli in the space. This achieves the “no emotion” effect, alleviating emotions that might be imposed by the less minimal space design elements [44].

Moreover, this minimal spatial design enables virtual reality to be employed as a therapeutic tool, where the VR-customized, therapeutic environment will add variations in the spatial design to extend the user’s experience by changing the dimensions of space and time. Figure 2 three interior design iterations for a student’s room following the minimal-architecture design criteria, exhibiting neutral colors and the use of natural materials such as wood, and the absence of ornamentation, colors, or patterns that might impose emotions or distract attention. These interior design renders also exhibit the importance of connection with the landscape and natural light through the wide windows. (The renders were generated by the author.)

2.1.2. Metaphysical Architecture (Leading the Sensory–Cognitive Experience)

Metaphysical architecture aims to lead the sensory–cognitive experience beyond the immediate physical world, guiding the observer toward a heightened state of perception and contemplation [45,46]. In Metaphysical Painting, as seen in the works of Giorgio de Chirico, eerie stillness, long shadows, and enigmatic juxtapositions evoke a sense of mystery that stimulates introspection and a questioning of reality. Similarly, metaphysical architecture employs symbolic forms, unexpected spatial compositions, and an intentional use of silence and void to provoke a deeper awareness of time, space, and existence. Rather than merely engaging the senses, metaphysical art and architecture seek to awaken a cognitive resonance through a feeling of metaphysical presence that transcends the material and leads the viewer toward a reflective, almost dreamlike state [47]. Figure 3 exhibits two examples of metaphysical art: two paintings from metaphysical artist Giorgio de Chirico (“Enchanted spaces in the city of Nietzsche” and “Metaphysical interior with the head of Mercury”). A real-world example of metaphysical architecture, the house of the Spanish sculptor Xavier Corberó in Barcelona [48]. These three examples reflect the characteristics of metaphysical art and architecture, incorporating enigmatic geometric compositions and symbolistic forms such as repetitive tall arches and abstract sculpted figures, leaving a sense of mystery and curiosity in the viewer and boosting cognitive capacity for spatial recognition and analysis.

Such a spatial experience reduces stress due to the immediate short-term effect it evokes in the viewer, serving as a pause and detachment from stressors, weather visual, acoustic, or emotional. A metaphysical design space can lead to enhanced conceptual organization, playing a crucial role in therapeutic practices for ADHD, since it provides an interesting and beyond-physical composition of forms and colors to strengthen and extend the duration of the concentration capacity of ADHD patients.

This does not go against the recommended simplicity provided by minimal-architecture spaces, but rather, compliments it by providing a symbolic extension of the space to provoke deep thinking and meditation. This is particularly helpful in the case of ADHD patients, as well as in the case of Misophonia patients, since it might help to reduce stress and expand the space metaphysically.

Moreover, a space with a metaphysical design allows the use of virtual reality and augmented reality to create therapeutic customized environments in a different way to minimal architecture, since it provides items (symbols) or objects to inspire the scenario of these customized VR or AR environments. This expands the scope for creativity and variety in designing these therapeutic VR programs.

Figure 4 illustrates three iterations of interior design for a student’s room, incorporating metaphysical architectural characteristics while maintaining neutral colors and a connection to the landscape through spacious architectural openings. The renders were generated by the author.

2.2. Advanced Functional Architectural Materials with Therapeutic Value for Special Neurological Needs (Misophonia and ADHD) (First Level of Intervention)

Since minimal and metaphysical architecture, as reflected in our proposed customized therapeutic spatial design, promote the use of natural and functional materials over the use of colors, patterns, or ornamentation, the following section is dedicated to tracing advances in functional materials that have been developed for acoustic insulation or stress and anxiety relief. As an integral part of the spatial design criteria, functional materials hold considerable potential in activating the therapeutic effect of a space designed specifically for Misophonia and ADHD patients, especially since these sound-blocking materials cut out the main trigger in the case of Misophonia and ensure a sustained acoustically comfortable environment; this is also important in the case of ADHD, in which individuals also experience hyperactivity and loss of attention upon exposure to sensory stimuli, among which sound is one significant element.

Meanwhile, stress-relief materials are an emerging research area that might offer a solution to reduce stress and anxiety resulting from Misophonia and ADHD symptoms.

2.2.1. Sound-Blocking Acoustic Materials

Developing efficient yet cost-effective sound-absorbing materials for noise reduction has become an important research area. Various materials, such as polyurethane foam, thermoplastic foams, textile fabrics, and composites, employ different design strategies and structures, ranging from foam structures to micro-perforated panels [50]. In addition, modeling techniques for simulating soundwave propagation through porous media contribute to defining the properties and microstructure of acoustic insulation materials.

Despite the emergence of acoustic metamaterials with superior sound absorption and transmission loss, their adoption for building sound insulation has been limited. Sound insulation design in buildings is still informed by the acoustic performance of conventional materials, where the mass law contradicts lightweighting in acoustic design. Nevertheless, buildings near noisy environments such as motorways, railway lines, and airports, continue to suffer from significant low-frequency-noise pollution. Although the limited ability of acoustic metamaterials to block soundwaves of certain lengths presents a challenge, combining meta-units that interact at various frequencies alongside multi-layer conventional solutions can deliver enhanced sound insulation. The performance of these materials is explained through their negative mass density, bulk modulus, or locally resonating microstructures [51].

It has been reported that a hair-thin fabric has been engineered to create a lightweight, compact, and efficient mechanism for reducing noise transmission in large spaces. The fabric, barely thicker than a human hair, contains a special fiber that vibrates when voltage is applied. These vibrations suppress sound in two ways: first, by generating soundwaves that interfere with unwanted noise, similarly to noise-canceling headphones, and second, by being held still to suppress sound-transmitting vibrations, enabling noise reduction in much larger environments such as rooms or vehicles. Its practical applications include creating dividers in open workspaces or thin fabric walls that block sound, using common materials like silk, canvas, and muslin [52].

Sustainable alternatives to conventional sound-absorbing materials have gained increasing attention lately. Since the predominant use of synthetic materials such as fiberglass and polymeric foams contributes to environmental degradation, as they are not reusable, recyclable, or compostable, they often end up in landfills. Mycelium-based composites offer a biodegradable alternative. For example, fungal mycelium derived from the non-pathogenic strain Pleurotus ostreatus, when grown on coffee flakes, forms 3D bio composites with high porosity, low density, good thermal properties, and satisfactory sound absorption. Their minimal energy requirements and compostable nature make them promising candidates for thermal and acoustic insulation in buildings [53]. Similarly, other studies have shown that Pleurotus ostreatus grown on waste cardboard or paper substrates yields mycelium-based composites that contribute to improved acoustic comfort and, consequently, health and productivity [54].

2.2.2. Stress-Relief Materials

Salt’s integration into architecture through salt panels, salt walls, and salt-based plasters holds intriguing promise for supporting neurological health by fostering a stable, purified environment that may reduce stress, enhance cognitive clarity, and aid sleep. For decades, halotherapy, an adaptation of salt-cave speleotherapy, has shown that inhalation of dry salt aerosol can reduce airway inflammation, improve mucus clearance, and support respiratory immunity [55], outcomes that indirectly benefit neurological well-being by ensuring better oxygenation and lowering physical stressors [56]. Beyond physical health, salt rooms appear to promote relaxation by stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system, resulting in reduced stress, improved sleep, and enhanced mental alertness. Anecdotal and preliminary reports connect these calming effects with relief from migraines, chronic fatigue, and heightened mood symptoms often seen in neurological conditions [57,58,59].

Salt is being reinvented structurally through polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs), notably “saloplastics”, which are engineered by doping oppositely charged polymers with saline solutions to yield dense, porous, and tunable materials with high humidity-buffering and thermal inactivity properties [57].

These materials have the potential to create passive-humidity-control and slow-release ionic environments in built spaces, offering stable microclimates that support neuronal comfort and function. For example, traditional salt walls constructed from Himalayan salt bricks combine hygroscopic regulation with negative-ion emission and trace-electrolyte presence, which may contribute to a sense of calm, mood elevation, and improved air purity [60]. These qualities, along with their visual and symbolic resonance of purification and protection in diverse cultures, align salt-based materials with neuroarchitecture strategies that emphasize comfort, stress reduction, and cognitive well-being.

While current evidence ranges from laboratory findings and small medical trials to material engineering studies and cultural analysis, further research is still needed to quantify neurological outcomes. Controlled trials comparing salt-enhanced environments with standard indoor spaces, as well as tracking mood, cognitive performance, sleep quality, and stress biomarkers, are needed to validate the employment of these materials as anti-anxiety and stress-relief materials. At the same time, design prototypes incorporating salt-based materials, Himalayan salt panels, and salt-infused plasters are appearing in wellness centers and experimental architecture projects, promoting the visual appeal of these materials as well as their air purification, humidity, thermal buffering, and negative-ion-generation properties, which may support brain health.

2.3. VR/AR as an Immersive Therapeutic Approach (An Architectural Add-On) (Second Level of Intervention)

Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials indicate that immersive VR interventions have a large effect on improving attention, memory, and global cognitive functioning in children with ADHD. For example, Corrigan et al. (2023) found that immersive VR-based interventions significantly enhanced sustained attention in comparison to controls, and also improved memory performance, although based on limited studies [34,61,62,63]. Another meta-analysis involving children aged 6–12 reported a moderate reduction in attention-deficit symptoms, confirming the potential therapeutic value of VR for ADHD, while also underscoring the need for larger, standardized, long-term studies [64]. Additionally, VR-based exercise interventions combining physical movement and immersive environments have shown improvements in executive functions such as inhibitory control, working memory, and planning, along with reductions in core ADHD symptoms such as inattention and hyperactivity after multi-week programs [65].

For anxiety disorders, VR has been widely studied primarily in exposure-based CBT contexts. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 17 trials (827 participants) found that VR application groups experienced significantly greater symptom reduction compared to passive control groups [66]. Another comprehensive review of VR-CBT interventions suggests promising reductions in momentary anxiety, paranoia, and negative affect across a range of neuropsychiatric conditions, including ADHD, mainly when immersive exposures are controlled and integrated with traditional CBT frameworks [67].

Moreover, VR relaxation environments such as nature scenes have been shown in randomized and controlled studies to be feasible, acceptable, and effective in promoting stress reduction and short-term anxiety relief, often with outcomes at least equal to those of guided meditation or muscle-relaxation techniques [68].

These findings highlight how immersive VR, when designed to incorporate cognitive-attention training, gamified movement, or controlled-exposure scenarios, can offer scalable and engaging support for managing ADHD and anxiety symptoms. However, the evidence points to modest-to-large effects, variability across studies, and a recognized need for longer-term, larger-scale, standardized clinical trials to confirm lasting therapeutic benefits.

Given the favorable results on the therapeutic effects of VR and AR on ADHD patients reported in the literature, the current work explores the potential of employing these immersive technologies as a second level of intervention in designing customized spatial architecture for Misophonia and ADHD conditions.

2.3.1. Allowing for the Extension of Spatial Design in Therapeutic VR/AR

In the current work, virtual and augmented reality are proposed as therapeutic add-ons to the architectural space, offering a virtual extension or alteration of the space´s characteristics. These alterations can be designed according to the biophilic design principles, as mentioned in the Section 1, as there is a proven favorable influence of biophilic design on stress relief and enhancing overall well-being, or by employing stress-relief color palettes with infinite iterations to offer a varying experience in the space.

For such cases, minimal architectural design, with its simplified physical forms and simplified colors, offers a clean canvas for the addition of therapeutic virtual and/or augmented reality scenarios, allowing the user to experience an enhanced and varying sensory experience in the space while avoiding excessive sensory inputs.

This is the first option of the second level of intervention in designing architectural space for special neurological needs, especially ADHD and Misophonia. As exhibited in Figure 5. the keyframes extracted from a short AI-generated video created using Hailou software (https://hailuoai.video/, NANONOBLE PTE. Ltd., Beach Road Gateway East, 189721, Singapore. Unique Entity Number: 202410771D) from a visual and a textual prompt. These keyframes depict alterations to the physical properties of the famous minimal-architecture building, the Neundorf House in Spain, which offers a clean canvas for varied VR and/or AR scenarios. In this case, following a biophilic design expressed in reaction–diffusion nature-inspired patterns and employing the color palette of green and blue, which are known as stress-relief colors, as mentioned above. (The video was generated by the author.)

This is a simple example that offers an understanding of the potential of VR and AR tools in designing infinite, tunable scenarios to offer a renewable spatial experience. This demonstrates the therapeutic effect of the customized spatial design for Misophonia and ADHD. Thus, this solution can be summarized in the following equation as an architectural criterion of design for special neurological needs:

Minimal architecture: the “no emotion criteria (minimal simplified forms, no patterns, natural materials, and simplified color palettes) + varied VR/AR scenarios based on biophilic and bio-inspired forms, elements, textures, and colors = enhanced temporary sensory experience for stress relief and enhanced cognitive capacity.

2.3.2. Allowing for Building upon the Architectural Scene and Elements to Augment, Connect, and Lead the Sensory Experience

For the second option, the VR and AR sensory scenarios can be built around a specific architectural element in the space, for instance, a specific accessory or artwork. In this case, the objective is focused on boosting cognitive capacity and enhancing concentration by offering a temporary sensory experience that is focused on a specific object in the space. This requires the physical existence of such an element in the space already, such as a painting, sculpture, or piece of furniture that has a particular design expressed in its forms and patterns, which will be the object of focus in the customized VR/AR scenario.

Thus, the metaphysical architecture space design plays a favorable role in designing this leading sensory experience. Figure 6 and Figure 7 Exhibit two examples of possible short scenarios, generated by the author in Hailou AI software using image-to-video generative AI with textual description. These short scenarios are built around a specific element in the space that becomes the object of focus of the sensory experience. For example, in Figure 6, the famous painting “Metaphysical interior with the head of Mercury” by Giorgio de Chirico is employed in a scenario, where the triangles in the background of the painting move and circulate while the head of Mercury is speaking to the viewer and giving a description of the painting’s meaning and of the metaphysical art by Giorgio de Chirico (video available in Supplementary Data. Video S1). Meanwhile, in Figure 7, two more architectural elements are presented as the objects of focus of the scenario: the sculpture of two figures and the floor from the famous metaphysical building, the house of Xavier Corberó in Barcelona. Here, the two figures start to rotate and more clearly reflect the figures of man and woman dancing, while the floor transforms into black and white tiles. These simple VR/AR scenarios are examples generated by the author to reflect the engaging effects of VR/AR in the space built upon a specific architectural element to boost cognitive capacity, such as the capacity to pay attention, and enable temporary detachment from the physical constraints of the space.

In this case, this solution can be summarized in the following equation as an architectural criterion of design for special neurological needs:

Metaphysical-architecture space design (particular element): engaging and cognition-boosting composition of patterns, forms, colors, and topics + varied VR/AR scenarios based on a specific metaphysical architectural element (painting, piece of furniture, etc.) = enhanced sensory experience to boost attention and detach temporarily from the space´s physical constraints.

This method can offer therapeutic effects for both ADHD and Misophonia patients by reducing anxiety through temporal detachment from the physical constraints of the space through the metaphysical aspects included in the customized VR/AR scenarios.

Figure 8 presents the customized spatial design criteria for Misophonia and ADHD, adopting minimal and metaphysical architecture as the first physical level of therapeutic spatial design intervention, and the customized use of VR and AR scenarios as an add-on to the architectural space as the second level of intervention.

3. Validation and Future Research

Although virtual and augmented reality have proven their therapeutic effects in various neurological disorders and injuries, as discussed in the previous sections of this manuscript, the specifications and technical application of this therapeutic tool require further study, and its effect on the overall mental, psychological, and physical health of the users should be tested.

For example, it is necessary to conduct a zero-state preliminary detailed medical report of the physiological and psychological state of the patients who will use this therapeutic approach. Since it is an emerging alternative therapeutic procedure, we still lack sufficient understanding of its possible side effects, interactions with medication, and even effects on other psychological or physiological illnesses, which might be affected negatively by using this VR/AR treatment. For example, regarding allergies, the tools can exacerbate existing allergies or trigger skin irritation in some users due to the materials used in the headsets and prolonged contact with the skin, as VR and AR headsets usually contain materials like foam padding, plastic shells, and straps, which can cause allergic reactions or skin irritation in sensitive individuals. Moreover, the most common skin issue associated with VR headsets is contact dermatitis. This is an allergic reaction that can cause redness, itching, and blistering of the skin where the headset makes contact. Furthermore, VR and AR can induce cybersickness, a form of motion sickness that can cause symptoms like nausea, dizziness, and headaches [69,70].

From the above detail the possible physiological effects of VR/AR use; on the other hand, the psychological effects remain unknown. Therefore, further clinical testing of VR/AR as therapeutic tools for ADHD and Misophonia is required, focusing on aspects such as the effect of the content, exposure time, and frequency, in other words, the dosage of this therapy. It is also important to define the limits of these varied and multiple VR/AR environment scenarios to avoid the possibility of intolerance caused by the repetitive use of these tools, as well as define the acceptable ratio of variation in order to deliver the optimal therapeutic effect using these tools.

Further testing on age- and gender-based variations in reactions to and efficiency of this VR/AR therapy must be considered as well to identify the minimum age at which to administer this therapeutic approach, in order to avoid unfavorable effects on the cognitive and emotional development of young people. It has been reported that virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can influence children’s cognitive development, both positively and negatively. While they enhance spatial reasoning, problem-solving skills, and engagement in learning [71,72,73], their excessive use or improper implementation may lead to issues like eye strain, social isolation, and potential addiction [74].

It is also necessary to consider possible conflicts with specific medications. For instance, it was reported that certain psychiatric medications can affect perception and cognitive function. It is important to consider how these medications might interact with the immersive and sensory experiences of VR/AR [75]. Moreover, some vision conditions or medications that affect vision could make it challenging to use VR/AR or potentially lead to discomfort or strain [76].

Therefore, medical supervision is necessary for the safe use and integration of VR/AR as a therapeutic approach for ADHD and Misophonia.

4. Conclusions

The current work discusses two increasingly prevalent neurological disorders, ADHD and Misophonia, which are considered to be a result of increased visual and acoustic pollution in modern times. ADHD and Misophonia are defined and analyzed in terms of their differential diagnostic symptoms and causes, where Misophonia is defined as hypersensitivity to sounds accompanied by severe emotional and psychological reactions, and ADHD is defined as the loss of attention and impulsive hyperactivity. The current work analyzed the typical treatments for these neurological conditions and offered a customized architectural spatial design as an alternative therapeutic approach that offers a long-lasting effect, since it affects the everyday lives of the space’s inhabitants and their well-being and productivity. This architecture-based therapeutic approach involves two levels of intervention: the physical design of architectural spaces employing minimal and metaphysical architectural trends, and using virtual and augmented reality customized scenarios as add-ons to the architectural space. Minimal-architecture characteristics in architectural design achieve the “no emotion” criteria through the adoption of simple forms, no patterns, and neutral colors to reduce sensory stimuli, and distraction and loss of attention, in ADHD patients, while allowing for the employment of acoustic noise-canceling materials in the space to achieve acoustic comfort for individuals with Misophonia. On the other hand, metaphysical architecture leads the hierarchy of sensory experience in the space due to its symbolic and dynamic forms, boosting spatial analysis capacity and relieving anxiety through temporal detachment from the space’s physical constraints. Minimal-architecture spaces provide a clear canvas for customized VR/AR therapeutic scenarios to be employed in the space, while metaphysical architecture allows for a therapeutic sensory experience to be built in VR/AR around specific architectural elements. Both options shape the second level of intervention in designing architecture for special neurological needs.