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Entry

Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Youth Mental Health

by
Victoria J. Blondell
1 and
Nicholas D. Thomson
2,3,4,*
1
Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of Tennessee Knoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
2
Department of Surgery and Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
3
Department of Psychology, College of Humanities and Sciences, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
4
Arche XR LLC, Glen Allen, VA 23060, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(4), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5040215
Submission received: 20 October 2025 / Revised: 29 November 2025 / Accepted: 12 December 2025 / Published: 15 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
Versions Notes

Definition

Virtual reality (VR) is a new technological advancement that has been at the forefront of a promising new era of technology-based psychoeducation, therapeutic practices, and interventions. VR offers the ability for individuals to enter an immersive virtual world with opportunities to engage with stimuli that exposes them to situations that otherwise cannot be created or controlled in the real world. Thus, VR presents a viable avenue for research, therapeutic treatment, and socio-emotional learning in adolescents. This entry seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the developing landscape of virtual reality as a means of promoting mental health for youth. We illuminate the robust opportunities for utilizing this new technology in psychological treatment, education, and intervention in adolescents, as well as the unique challenges it presents, and areas that future research should explore.

1. Introduction

In the world at large, technological advancements have accelerated rapidly over the past few decades, including within the field of psychology. Recently, discussions of new technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), wearable technology, smartphone capabilities, and other cutting-edge devices, have become widespread as their capabilities pose clear potential for enhancing diagnosis, treatment, and research methodologies [1,2,3]. While research is still preliminary, promising results have been found regarding the applicability and utility of these technologies in clinical diagnosis and treatment [4,5,6], as well as in enhancing research methodologies [7].
This paper provides a comprehensive review of developments in virtual reality (VR) in adolescent populations. We discuss the ways in which this technology offers strong potential for utilization in research, clinical treatment, and interventional practices. We highlight the future opportunities for further integration of this technology within the field, while still maintaining awareness of the potential challenges it poses. VR presents a significant opportunity for enhancing clinical and research practices, as evidenced by empirical support and early-stage integration. While not in totality, the field has begun to embrace these technologies as a means of enhancing efficiency, accuracy, accessibility, and simulation of realistic, yet highly controllable environments for therapeutic practices [8,9,10].

2. Terminology

Given that these technologies are relatively novel in the field of psychology, there are various terms that are used to describe these new advancements. These include “Assisted Reality”, “Augmented Reality”, “Mixed Reality”, and so forth, each with its own nuances and distinctions from each other [11]. Each of these forms can be housed under the general term of “XR”. Of these various branches of XR, VR remains the most extensively researched and applied modality in the psychology realm [12]. Thus, this review will focus exclusively on VR as a tool for adolescent mental health to maintain a clear scope of this novel technology. This paper defines VR as computer-generated simulations in a 3D immersive environment with rotational tracking that are most typically administered through head-mounted displays (HMDs), which are wearable devices for the head or eyes (such as a helmet or goggles) that typically include video displays and lenses [13]. In the modern era, these devices often employ sensors for head and eye tracking, providing a field of view.

3. Emergence of VR in the Psychology Field

The integration of VR into psychological research and practice dates back to the late 20th century, when it was successfully utilized to reduce acrophobia [14,15]. This work demonstrated how VR may be used as a tool to help reduce avoidance, distress, and fear commonly associated with specific phobias. These results were supported by studies in the following years that demonstrated that VR treatment outcomes were comparable to in vivo exposure therapy outcomes [16,17], and were more effective than cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) [18], as well as imaginal exposure [19,20]. Furthermore, these findings set the stage for the application of VR towards other types of therapies, such as for PTSD, anxiety disorders, and body image disturbance [21]. Through these overwhelmingly encouraging results, VR technologies became a new frontier for research and clinical work alike. In particular, the Extended Mind Theory provides a conceptual foundation of this new approach, positing that individuals can experience virtual environments as an extension of their own existing cognitive processes [22]. Thus, this demonstrates the possibilities of connecting responses across virtual and real-world environments, offering a plethora of opportunities to both study and alter cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes through research and clinical work. While these therapy modalities are novel and there are barriers to widespread dissemination [8], they are quickly becoming more recognized within the field, and interest in future implementation is growing [23].

4. Presence, Control, and Immersion in the Research Context

A key factor in this newly emerging technology that definitively sets it apart from other computer-based programming is the aspect of “presence,” which can facilitate emotion-processing by creating a sense of “being there” for the individual, and thereby eliciting emotional responses [24]. Thus, the sense of presence functions as a mechanism for emotional activation and subsequent cognitive restructuring, as with a greater sense of immersion, individuals experience increased arousal [25]. Notably, the ability to utilize presence and create these immersive simulations allows researchers and practitioners to establish complete control of the exposure environment [26], something that remains a major and common limitation of research and clinical work alike [27]. For example, the utilization of VR allows for distractions, exposure stimuli, and environments to be controlled to a degree not possible in non-simulated environments, thereby allowing for better data collection and understanding of participant responses [26]. Through the unique capabilities of VR, a crucial balance between ecological validity and experimental control can be established [7]. In addition, this allows for enhanced replicability, as researchers seeking to reproduce results can easily use the same VR programs to maintain similar environments or alter a single facet of the environment to see if results change. Furthermore, VR offers opportunities to integrate sensory feedback, which refers to the ability to output stimuli that simulate an individual’s senses, such as auditory, haptic, and spatial senses [28]. For example, technology such as haptic gloves can stimulate the tactile feeling of objects [29]. Through this, presence and immersion can be greatly enhanced, allowing for the VR environments to more closely replicate various real-world settings and scenarios [30]. Furthermore, this creates an opportunity for greater sensory engagement and interactivity for participants, as well as real-time feedback to sensory stimuli [28]. In turn, this can enhance data collection of psychological processes, physiological responses, and other such measures of the participant’s response to the stimulated environment if paired with biometric sensors [30]. Through its unique abilities and benefits, VR technology has opened the door for a multitude of innovative new approaches in research methodology.

5. VR in the Therapeutic Context

Due to the ability to simulate complex and hard-to-reach environments, as well as a high level of control, VR has been recognized as an advantageous avenue for innovative and efficacious therapeutic treatment. In particular, the immersive nature of VR allows for engagement in environments that otherwise would be highly difficult, if not impossible, to replicate in vivo, making it a compelling tool for therapeutic treatment [31]. Virtual Reality–Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (VR-CBT) was at the helm of these new clinical innovations. Traditional CBT has been well established as an effective treatment for adolescents in areas of depression [32], anxiety [33], and specific phobias [34]. Preliminary studies have found VR-CBT to be effective at reducing depressive symptoms in adolescents [35] as well as improvements in thought discomfort, cognitive diffusions, and state anger [36]. In addition, a case study found support for VR-CBT in treating bulimia nervosa in an adolescent patient through normalizing functional eating patterns and reducing urges to binge and purge [37]. Though findings are still emerging for eating disorders in adolescents, VR-CBT shows potential for future clinical integration through reducing associated anxiety and shifting participant perceptions of what constitutes a healthy BMI [38]. While these results are promising, there still remains a dearth of comprehensive research surrounding the treatment of depression and generalized anxiety through VR-CBT. However, VR-CBT for exposure has been more commonly studied, as the concept of a simulated, virtual environment is a more accessible alternative for individuals who find the concept of exposure in vivo too distressing [39]. Virtual reality-based therapy allows clients to engage within a computer-generated environment they may not otherwise be able to expose themselves to in the real world [40].
This form of exposure through VR-CBT is termed Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET). Research has supported its efficacy in the treatment of acrophobia, social phobia [41], driving phobia [42], and other such specific phobias [43]. In youth, findings are more limited but still encouraging. VRET has been shown to reduce acrophobia [44] and school phobia [45] in adolescent populations. Furthermore, VRET has also been found to reduce PTSD symptomology through individualized simulations and desensitization [46,47]. VRET is notable in that it can recreate and monitor traditionally difficult-to-control environments that are likely to be the source of phobias (e.g., airplanes/airports) and help protect patient confidentiality by enabling treatment to be administered privately, even if the phobias involve public places [48]. Thus, VRET may help reduce participant fear surrounding experiencing shame or embarrassment by receiving exposure therapy in public, which is a key concern among individuals seeking treatment [49]. Indeed, VRET has strong patient acceptability; one study found that 89% of participants chose VRET over in vivo exposure therapy, and only 8% outright rejected the VR form of treatment, compared to 17.4% who rejected in vivo therapy. This is particularly significant as it is estimated that less than 24% of individuals suffering from phobias ever seek out treatment [50]. While much research has focused on adult populations, the acceptability of VRET has also been found in youth [51]. Adolescents report that VRET is more interesting, engaging, and novel than traditional treatment [51]. Thus, the applications of VR technology in clinical spaces offer robust opportunities for better addressing the needs and concerns of adolescent patients who may be hesitant to seek out support.
VR has also shown promise in supporting general mental health through mindfulness and meditation practices. For example, mindfulness has been found to be effective at decreasing depressive symptoms [52], anxiety and mood disorder symptoms [53], and improving overall mental health in adolescents [54]. As a result, VR programs have adopted mindfulness and meditation-based techniques, leveraging the high level of immersion offered through VR to enhance their effectiveness [55,56]. For example, VR meditation programs are unique in that they offer immersive environments, integrated controlled breathing techniques, and relaxing sounds, all of which occur seamlessly and simultaneously [57]. Furthermore, the provision of choice of environment, attentional anchor, and practice in VR aids in engagement and motivation to participate [56], which in turn promotes treatment retention [55]. Particularly in youth, VR mental health mindfulness programs engage participants in an open-world natural world with calming and mindfulness-based activities have been found to enhance momentary mood and reduce momentary stress [58]. Similar such findings have been found in other adolescent populations: for example, mindfulness-based virtual reality intervention programs have been found to be feasible and acceptable in populations of adolescents in reducing anxiety and pain associated with medical conditions [59], enhancing focus [60], and reducing depressive symptoms [61]. In general, research has found that youth feel that virtual reality-based mindfulness is more engaging and enjoyable compared to traditional mindfulness practices [58,60]. These mindfulness VR programs have begun to be widely distributed to the general public through apps such as Tripp VR, a wellness app offering a variety of mindfulness and meditative experiences [62], which has notable positive participant feedback [63].
Beyond mindfulness-based programs for overall youth mental health, VR mental health interventions have also expanded programs for youth with externalizing issues and socio-emotional deficits, a critical development given the numerous barriers to treatment and the generally lower responsiveness to existing approaches in this population [64,65,66]. Organizations such as Arche XR and VOISS Project are developing new programs that seek to enhance coping skills, stress management, resilience, and social skills [67,68]. Although research on the efficacy of these programs is still ongoing [67], preliminary results are encouraging [69,70,71]. For example, a VR-based intervention, entitled “YourSkills” was developed with the aim of enhancing emotional regulation and social information processing in youth with aggressive behavior problems [72]. Initial findings suggest that this program is feasible and acceptable among adolescent males and therapists. In addition, following the completion of the program, parents reported decreased behavioral problems. Furthermore, the VOISS Project has developed VOISS, a tool to address social skill deficits in youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) through VR exposures to various scenarios testing social and problem-solving skills [73]. This program was found to enhance social skills in this population and assist with student engagement and attainment of knowledge. Another such example is Impact VR [74], an intervention program that seeks to aid youth in emotion recognition, emotional regulation, and promote prosocial behaviors, has been found to reduce callous-unemotional traits, conduct problems, and reactive aggression [71]. This program had high acceptability, feasibility, and appropriateness among youth, mental health professionals, teachers, and caregivers, demonstrating critical engagement among youth and associated adults [70]. Early findings across VR mental health interventions are encouraging. As is typical in emerging technology research, most evaluations to date have been conducted by the same teams that developed the programs. Independent replication across populations and settings will be essential as the field progresses to determine the generalizability and durability of these preliminary findings. Overall, these findings highlight the growing potential for VR-based interventions to address the deficit of effective existing treatments, particularly in adolescent populations with externalizing behaviors and socio-emotional challenges.

6. Benefits over Traditional Means

As demonstrated, virtual reality programs have been shown to be efficacious in disseminating exposure therapy treatments, mindfulness techniques and practices, and interventions targeting socio-emotional deficits and externalizing behaviors for adolescents. The benefits of utilizing this technology over traditional methods have been demonstrated, particularly for younger populations [75,76]. The possibilities of gamification, the technique of applying elements from game design into interventions and treatment, are particularly beneficial when integrated into VR programs. Gamification can increase engagement, motivation, and retention for participants [77,78,79], as well as enhance focus and excitement [56]. VR technology offers extensive opportunities for integrating gamified elements into therapeutic and intervention programs due to the systems’ utilization of HMDs, head tracking, and handheld controllers. As these devices are marketed to the public as cutting-edge gaming consoles [80], youth are more likely to be excited and engaged to have an opportunity to use VR [81], particularly as they find new technology highly captivating [82]. This engagement with technology is significant for adolescents as youth between the ages of 8 and 18 spend approximately 7:38 h per day in front of a screen [83]. Thus, encouraging VR-based programs of treatment, intervention, and mental wellness may reduce youth’s passive and negative screentime through restructuring this habit and providing a break from smartphones [58,84]. By offering youth opportunities to utilize technology and games in a beneficial manner, VR interventions may be more easily encouraged in this population.
Furthermore, with respect to VR-based therapies, there is a wider range of accessibility for youth who may experience barriers to treatment. As VR technology has been available to the public for some time, its affordability and user-friendly features have increased [85]. As such, implementation of VR programs is becoming more accessible as they are low-cost and can break through traditional barriers to treatment, such as language barriers [86]. Furthermore, these programs can be self-administered, thereby allowing individuals to receive help even in mental health deserts. For example, self-guided VR programs have been found to be highly beneficial for individuals with specific phobia symptoms and panic disorder [87,88]. Similar findings were found in a population of adolescents; a self-guided VR intervention demonstrated significant reductions in depressive symptoms in youth [35]. As demand for mental healthcare has outpaced supply [89], these VR programs offer a viable solution to increasing access to treatment and reaching a greater number of adolescents.
Another such obstacle to treatment that VR-based technologies seek to address is stigma resulting from receiving mental health treatment. Stigma surrounding seeking help for mental healthcare has been found to be a significant barrier to receiving necessary care [90]. However, VR-based programs offer a credible solution to this barrier; VR-based programming may reduce feelings of stigmatization in individuals seeking help, as these interventions and treatments can be completed at home [35] or, alternatively, outside of the public eye, where fear of embarrassment and shame is common [48].
Overall, the benefits of VR technology in the field of psychology are numerous. A multitude of studies have supported the feasibility and acceptability of VR treatments and interventions in participants in adolescents [36,51,81], along with caregivers and teachers [35,70]. Critically, youth view these programs as fun and engaging, particularly due to the interactive and visual components of VR [36]. Engagement and motivation are crucial for the efficacy of treatment and positive outcomes [91]. Thus, the benefits of VR offer a critical pathway for revolutionizing the approach to therapeutic engagement. Indeed, mental healthcare professionals have begun to embrace this new modality; 75% of professionals reported that they intended to utilize VR if available [92]. Furthermore, a systematic review of mental healthcare professionals’ perspectives of VR demonstrated that an overwhelming majority of studies report positive attitudes towards the utilization of VR therapies [8]. These positive perspectives were attributed to greater patient engagement in these therapies, controllability and safety, as well as accessibility.

7. Limitations of VR Integration

Despite the robust benefits and empirical support for VR integration into psychological healthcare and research, there are significant limitations that must be acknowledged. VR headsets may be cumbersome or highly uncomfortable for some participants, leading to eye strain or headaches [93]. This may result in confounding factors that influence data collection in research settings and reduce the appeal of use in clinical and community settings. Furthermore, cybersickness, a type of motion sickness derived from VR, is a potential side effect [94]. Cybersickness can cause nausea, disorientation, and discomfort from the virtual environment. This can lead to lower treatment satisfaction and treatment outcomes [95], which is significant as studies have found that cybersickness may occur in 22–56% of participants [96]. These negative side effects may make adolescents less inclined to continue with treatment due to discomfort [58].
In addition, as with any technology, the risk of glitches is always present and can influence the user experience [97]. These glitches and bugs may detract from the overall experience by causing annoyance, confusion, distraction, and a break in immersion [98]. This has the potential to interfere with the data collection process in research contexts and treatment efficacy in clinical contexts [99], particularly with younger adolescent populations who may be more aroused by distractions present in the surrounding field of vision [100]. Thus, the bugs and glitches that accompany VR programs may serve to distract participants and function as a confounding variable in research studies or reduce treatment outcomes in clinical contexts.
New technology presents inevitable challenges related to user error that can influence the feasibility of the implementation of VR programming. For example, for self-paced programs, a lack of Wi-Fi connection may result in incomplete data collection, which may present more significant complications to researchers compared to traditional means [35]. For individuals who lack experience with technology, attempting to learn the controls of the device and adjust to VR HMDs may be challenging and frustrating [93]. For administration of at-home research and clinical work, participants may struggle to find enough space for utilizing this equipment, as room-scale-based VR programs typically require 5 square feet [93], as well as lack internet connectivity that may be essential to operating the program [101]. Frustration and challenges with program installation and updates may also act as a barrier, as participants may feel that the program is “broken” [98]. These user challenges may pose significant barriers for individuals who live in communities without access to broadband internet, lack technical fluency, and live in more restrictive home environments.
Furthermore, there are gaps in treatment availability and accessibility in particular demographic populations. For example, while VR offers greater ability to effectively incorporate programs in varying languages [86], there still remains a barrier of ensuring that the content of the program is culturally informed and localized to ensure it remains effective for diverse populations [102]. In addition, individuals who live in more rural communities may lack the technological infrastructure, such as broadband internet [103], which may be necessary to utilize VR programs that require Wi-Fi connectivity. Finally, the implementation of these programs may also be highly dependent on community funding availability. For example, schools and community centers in lower-income areas may find the cost of implementation of these technologies to be too high and may lack the infrastructure for adequate integration, thus restricting accessibility for economically disadvantaged youth [104]. This problem also stretches into other youth-serving systems, such as the juvenile justice system, which frequently cites challenges with a lack of appropriate funding for mental healthcare and an inability to enhance current resources due to issues with fragmentation between youth-serving systems [105,106]. Thus, these VR-based programs present unique challenges to more diverse and underserved populations.

8. Future Directions

Based on the above findings and limitations, avenues for future directions for the utilization of VR in youth mental health treatment are abundant. Primarily, research that employs VR technology is still in the early stages, particularly in youth populations. Part of the appeal of these technologies is that they are novel; however, this means that empirical evidence supporting their efficacy and feasibility is still in the early stages and in need of replication. Furthermore, because these early feasibility and pilot studies traditionally have smaller sample sizes [107], the majority of existing studies supporting the use of VR for adolescent mental health are based on limited samples. This significantly limits the applicability, generalizability, and statistical power of these findings. Future research must take a distinct focus on replicating existing findings in larger samples, ideally with diverse populations, to provide stronger support for widespread implementation and dissemination of these therapies. Furthermore, studies are still widely mixed on whether VR-based treatment is more effective than existing therapies [43]. As such, while VR therapies may be more effective than waitlist or no-therapy controls, future studies should further investigate the potential benefits of utilizing these programs over traditional means, including factors such as cost, accessibility, and participant preference. Finally, future research should also investigate the potential of integrating these technologies into a wider range of settings. While much research has focused on school [108], home [87], and hospital settings [76,80], there is a dearth of research looking at the implementation of VR into juvenile detention facilities, broad community settings, and rural settings. Investigating the feasibility of integrating VR treatments and interventions across a wider range of settings may prove beneficial to traditionally difficult-to-reach populations.

9. Conclusions

In sum, VR technology offers encouraging opportunities for mental health treatment in adolescents. Despite the limitations present with this technology, empirical evidence supports the validity of continued research surrounding the utility, feasibility, and implementation of VR in clinical and research contexts for youth. VR expands the realm of what is possible in the field of psychology through its revolutionary immersive features for environmental simulation, which is paramount for adolescent motivation, engagement, and interest in these programs [56,81,109]. Through this, positive clinical outcomes and reach can be expanded, and greater insights can be gained through research that integrates this innovative technology. While findings surrounding VR for youth mental health are still highly preliminary, early research suggests its potential in transforming areas of clinical treatment through VR-CBT, VRET, mindfulness, and socioemotional training programs for adolescents. Furthermore, its research capabilities greatly enhance ecological validity and place participants in contexts that have historically been difficult to study, making it a powerful tool for researchers. As this technology continues to develop in tandem with advancements in the field of psychology, the potential for highly efficacious, widely accessible, and captivating treatment is increasingly promising.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, V.J.B. and N.D.T.; methodology, V.J.B. and N.D.T.; investigation, V.J.B. and N.D.T.; writing—original draft preparation, V.J.B.; writing—review and editing, V.J.B. and N.D.T.; supervision, N.D.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

Nicholas Thomson is the founder and has an ownership interest in Arche XR, LLC. Arche XR’s Impact VR is mentioned in this manuscript.

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Blondell, V.J.; Thomson, N.D. Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Youth Mental Health. Encyclopedia 2025, 5, 215. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5040215

AMA Style

Blondell VJ, Thomson ND. Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Youth Mental Health. Encyclopedia. 2025; 5(4):215. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5040215

Chicago/Turabian Style

Blondell, Victoria J., and Nicholas D. Thomson. 2025. "Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Youth Mental Health" Encyclopedia 5, no. 4: 215. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5040215

APA Style

Blondell, V. J., & Thomson, N. D. (2025). Virtual Reality as an Innovative Tool for Youth Mental Health. Encyclopedia, 5(4), 215. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5040215

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