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Article

High-Resolution UAV-Based Fuzzy Logic Mapping of Iron Oxide Alteration for Porphyry Copper Exploration: A Case Study from the Kyzylkiya Copper Prospect in Eastern Kazakhstan

by
Elmira Orynbassarova
1,
Hemayatullah Ahmadi
2,3,4,*,
Bakhberde Adebiyet
1,
Amin Beiranvand Pour
5,
Alma Bekbotayeva
4 and
Nurmakhambet Sydyk
6
1
Geomatics Innovation Center, Satbayev University, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Geological Engineering and Exploration of Mines, Faculty of Geology and Mines, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul 1001, Afghanistan
3
Department of Water Resources, Wood Rodgers, Inc., Orange, CA 92866, USA
4
Department of Geological Survey, Search and Exploration of Mineral Deposits, Geology and Oil-Gas Business Institute, Satbayev University, Almaty 050013, Kazakhstan
5
Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Higher Institution Center of Excellence (HICoE) in Marine Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), Kuala Nerus 21030, Malaysia
6
Institute of Ionosphere, Almaty 050000, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Mining 2025, 5(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/mining5030052
Submission received: 3 July 2025 / Revised: 11 August 2025 / Accepted: 13 August 2025 / Published: 18 August 2025
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Abstract

Detecting surface mineral indicators with high spatial precision remains a significant challenge in mineral exploration, particularly in remote or geologically complex regions such as Eastern Kazakhstan. This study addresses this challenge by integrating high-resolution multispectral imagery from Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to map iron oxide distributions, key indicators of ore mineralization such as copper porphyry at the Kyzylkiya mining site in Eastern Kazakhstan. The novelty of this study is the development of a statistical fuzzy logic model that integrates UAV-derived spectral indices, including the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and targeted band ratios, to generate probabilistic maps of iron oxide presence at a fine spatial resolution of 5.29 cm. This approach enhances prediction accuracy by incorporating uncertainty and variability in spectral responses. The model’s output was validated through a multi-stage process involving independent multispectral datasets and ground-truth sampling, achieving an overall accuracy of 80%. The results reveal concentrated iron oxide anomalies in the northeast and northwest of the study area, underscoring the method’s effectiveness. This integrated UAV-fuzzy logic framework demonstrates a scalable and cost-effective solution for early-stage mineral exploration and can be adapted to similar geological settings globally.
Keywords: remote sensing; UAV; iron oxide detection; fuzzy logic; mineral exploration; porphyry copper deposit; Kazakhstan remote sensing; UAV; iron oxide detection; fuzzy logic; mineral exploration; porphyry copper deposit; Kazakhstan

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MDPI and ACS Style

Orynbassarova, E.; Ahmadi, H.; Adebiyet, B.; Beiranvand Pour, A.; Bekbotayeva, A.; Sydyk, N. High-Resolution UAV-Based Fuzzy Logic Mapping of Iron Oxide Alteration for Porphyry Copper Exploration: A Case Study from the Kyzylkiya Copper Prospect in Eastern Kazakhstan. Mining 2025, 5, 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining5030052

AMA Style

Orynbassarova E, Ahmadi H, Adebiyet B, Beiranvand Pour A, Bekbotayeva A, Sydyk N. High-Resolution UAV-Based Fuzzy Logic Mapping of Iron Oxide Alteration for Porphyry Copper Exploration: A Case Study from the Kyzylkiya Copper Prospect in Eastern Kazakhstan. Mining. 2025; 5(3):52. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining5030052

Chicago/Turabian Style

Orynbassarova, Elmira, Hemayatullah Ahmadi, Bakhberde Adebiyet, Amin Beiranvand Pour, Alma Bekbotayeva, and Nurmakhambet Sydyk. 2025. "High-Resolution UAV-Based Fuzzy Logic Mapping of Iron Oxide Alteration for Porphyry Copper Exploration: A Case Study from the Kyzylkiya Copper Prospect in Eastern Kazakhstan" Mining 5, no. 3: 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining5030052

APA Style

Orynbassarova, E., Ahmadi, H., Adebiyet, B., Beiranvand Pour, A., Bekbotayeva, A., & Sydyk, N. (2025). High-Resolution UAV-Based Fuzzy Logic Mapping of Iron Oxide Alteration for Porphyry Copper Exploration: A Case Study from the Kyzylkiya Copper Prospect in Eastern Kazakhstan. Mining, 5(3), 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/mining5030052

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