Memorable Dark Tourism Experiences: Cross-Cultural Analysis of Czech Republic and India

Abstract

This study investigates how cultural context shapes memorable tourism experiences at dark-tourism sites by comparing young visitors (aged between 18 to 34) from the Czech Republic and India. The Czech Republic and India were selected for this study because they offer two culturally and historically distinct contexts that allow for meaningful examination of cross-cultural variation in dark tourism experiences. It specifically aims to examine whether and how the seven dimensions of the Memorable Tourism Experience Scale (MTES), hedonism, refreshment, local culture, involvement, knowledge, meaningfulness, and novelty vary across these two cultural settings. A cross-sectional, comparative survey design was employed using a convenience sample of 100 Czech and 108 Indian university students who had previously visited dark-tourism attractions. Data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire based on the MTES, and analyzed using factor analysis and independent-sample t-tests to validate the scale and test for cross-cultural differences. Significant differences emerged for hedonic value and meaningfulness, with Indian participants reporting higher scores on both dimensions, while local culture, involvement, knowledge, novelty, and refreshment did not differ significantly between the two samples. The study contributes to the memorable tourism experience literature by demonstrating that dark tourism represents a hybrid eudaimonic–hedonic experience in which cognitive learning and reflective appraisal coexist with pleasure and arousal, and by showing that cultural context modulates affective and meaning-related dimensions more than cognitive ones. Practically, the findings suggest that dark-tourism managers should priorities interpretive designs that integrate knowledge acquisition with emotionally and morally resonant narratives, while tailoring hedonic and meaning framings to the cultural profiles of target markets.

1. Introduction

Dark tourism involves travelling to places associated with death, tragedy, and suffering. It is emerging as one of the fastest-growing niches in the tourism sector, largely driven by the bandwagon effect and significant digital media influence (Basaraba, 2024). The market value of the dark tourism industry is projected to reach approximately USD 31.89 billion in 2024 and to achieve modest compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2.5% in the decade from 2024 to 2034 (Dark Tourism Market, 2024). By the end of this period, the global market for dark tourism is forecast to be approximately USD 40.82 billion (Dark Tourism Market, 2024).

Cultural perspectives on death, mourning rituals, and commemorating historical events influence how individuals from different cultures approach and perceive dark tourism destinations (P. R. Stone, 2012). The cultural significance of these sites shapes visitors’ experiences, with narratives and interpretations rooted in cultural identity and collective memory (Jia, 2020; Kang & Moscardo, 2006).

This study uses the Memorable Tourism Experiences Scale (MTES) to examine tourists’ perceptions of memorable experiences and what significantly motivates their intentions regarding, for example, revisiting destinations and recommendations. Tourists’ perceptions and experiences are often rooted in their cultural values and norms, as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions show (Hofstede, 2011). Using data from young student travelers in the Czech Republic and India, this study employed MTES to explore the differences and similarities across seven dimensions of memorable tourism experiences. The Czech Republic and India were selected for this study because they offer two culturally and historically distinct contexts that allow for meaningful examination of cross-cultural variation in dark tourism experiences. The Czech Republic represents a predominantly Western, post-communist Central European society with established tourism infrastructure and a long tradition of heritage interpretation centered on war, political oppression, and national memory. India, in contrast, embodies a non-Western, collectivist cultural context where historical narratives are intertwined with colonialism, spirituality, and socio-political identity formation.

Existing research on dark tourism has expanded considerably over the past two decades, yet several unresolved issues continue to limit a comprehensive understanding of how visitors experience sites associated with dark tourism (Moral-Moral, 2024). Existing work tends to focus on single-country contexts, often within Western settings, which restricts the generalizability of findings and overlooks how culturally grounded worldviews shape the interpretation of dark sites. Another gap concerns the application of multidimensional experiential frameworks such as the Memorable Tourism Experience Scale (MTES). Prior research also seldom investigated the interplay between these experiential dimensions and culturally embedded cognitive-emotional mechanisms (Sigala & Steriopoulos, 2022; Assylkhanova et al., 2025). The field also lacks an integrated understanding of weather visitors from different cultural backgrounds evaluate, interpret, and remember dark-tourism sites (Millan et al., 2021; García-Madurga & Grilló-Méndez, 2023). This study is important because it directly addresses these gaps by conducting a structured empirical comparison of Czech and Indian young adults’ memorable experiences at dark-tourism sites using the MTES. These cultural contexts may differ significantly in historical memory traditions, death-related norms, and tourism socialization, making them useful cases for exploring variability in experiential dimensions. The results strengthens the conceptual integration between experiential tourism frameworks and cultural-psychological theories, offering a more sophisticated explanation of how visitors process death-related narratives.

1.1. Dark Tourism

Dark tourism has gained significant attention from academics in recent years, as it involves travelling to destinations closely associated with death, tragedy, and suffering (Pereira et al., 2022). These locations, once primarily regarded as sites of remembrance, have transformed into intriguing spaces because of their connection to natural or engineered disasters and atrocities (Pereira et al., 2022). Scholars have increasingly focused on understanding the factors that drive individuals to participate in dark tourism by examining a range of motivations and psychological drivers. For instance, scholars have explored the quest for knowledge and understanding of historical events (Foley & Lennon, 1996), the pursuit of emotional experiences and personal transformation (P. R. Stone, 2006), and fascination with the macabre and taboos (P. Stone & Sharpley, 2008).

Scholars in this tradition, such as Lennon and Foley (2000) and P. R. Stone (2006), positioned dark tourism as a socio-cultural construct shaped by global media, heritage politics, and shifting attitudes toward mortality. A second body of research has concentrated on understanding visitor motivations and emotional responses. These studies often adopt psychological or sociological lenses and seek to explain why individuals choose to visit places associated with tragedy or suffering (Iliev, 2020; Sigala & Steriopoulos, 2022). P. Stone (2013) posits that dark tourism, as an academic discipline, represents the intersection of death education and tourism studies, hence presenting potentially valuable research opportunities within the expansive domain of thanatology. Researchers have shown that motivations extend beyond curiosity or morbid fascination, encompassing learning, identity work, empathy, and the desire for meaningful reflection (Assylkhanova et al., 2025; Moral-Moral, 2024; Tripathi & Bansal, 2025). Pereira et al. (2022) emphasize the evolving nature of dark tourism destinations, which transcend their role as mere sites of remembrance and become intriguing spaces because of their connections with natural or engineered disasters and atrocities. Similarly, Shamsiddinugli (2022) highlights the allure of dark tourism, encompassing themes of death, misery, sorrow, and tragedy, which draw visitors to locations marked by homicides, battles, cemeteries, or natural disasters. These studies frequently identify dark tourism as an experience that blends hedonic and eudaimonic elements, challenging simple assumptions about voyeurism or thrill-seeking. Dark tourism, as a conceptual typology, has undergone a persistent process of marketisation within academics over the past decade (Iliev, 2020). Consequently, gloomy tourism has emerged as a research domain wherein scholars can explore a variety of studies relating to death and visitor experiences.

1.2. Memorable Tourism Experience

Experience is an essential intangible benefit of tourism. Tung and Ritchie (2011) define tourism experience as an individual’s subjective evaluation and immersion in events related to tourist activities, encompassing affective, cognitive, conative, and behavioral dimensions. The connection between memory and tourism experiences is not new, and is rooted in early environmental psychology research (Šimková, 2014). Memory is crucial for understanding the recollection of significant tourist experiences. Memories of a trip hold a certain allure and intrinsic reward characterized by storytelling moments. Episodic memory, which involves retaining information about temporal–spatial relationships, emotions, people, and settings, is often employed when recalling experiences (Hosany et al., 2022).

The link between experience and memory from tourism leads to a study of memorable tourism experiences. Memorable tourism experiences are defined as tourism experiences that leave a positive and lasting impression on individuals, and are crucial in influencing future travel decisions (Hurdawaty et al., 2025). Memorable tourism experiences have recently gained prominence as a consumer-centric reflective approach that captures visitors’ emotional and subjective reactions. However, not all events are likely to be remembered, as visitors selectively retain their most meaningful experiences, often favoring new occurrences or distinctive characteristics (Wei et al., 2019). Memorable tourist experiences can be both positive and negative and that the degree of remembrance can vary based on an individual’s past interactions, even with the same tourism service providers (Wei et al., 2019). Considering the need for a comprehensive instrument to assess remarkable experiences, Kim et al. (2012) devised the MTES. Through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, they identified seven key dimensions that encompass the core elements of memorable tourist experiences: hedonism; refreshment; immersion in local culture; and involvement in the acquisition of knowledge, meaningfulness, and novelty. These dimensions collectively encompass various facets that contribute to the creation of unusual experiences, illustrating the multidimensional nature of tourism encounters. Kim and Ritchie (2014) validated this scale for cross-cultural settings employing Taiwanese visitors. Hedonism, novelty, local culture, refreshment, meaningfulness, involvement, and knowledge are key dimensions that contribute to creating memorable tourism experiences (Bingöl, 2024). These elements play a crucial role in shaping tourists’ perceptions of and satisfaction with their travel experiences. As described by Kim et al. (2012), hedonism emphasizes the pursuit of pleasurable feelings during travel encounters (Sthapit et al., 2019). Novelty, another significant component, involves experiencing new and unique aspects during travel (Afaq et al., 2022). Local culture enhances memorable tourism experiences by providing insights into the customs, language, and way of life of the locals (Hidayat, 2023). Refreshment, as identified by E. Cohen (1979) and Kim and Ritchie (2014), distinguishes travel experiences from everyday life, offering a temporary escape from routine activities (Hương et al., 2022). Meaningfulness, associated with personal growth and development during tourism activities, contributes to the creation of enduring memories (C. Wang et al., 2021). Involvement, characterized by a high level of interest in a destination or activity, enhances the emotional and cognitive aspects of the travel experience (Y. Wang, 2023). Knowledge acquisition during travel, as emphasized by Kim et al. (2012), reflects tourists’ desire to expand their understanding of history, culture, and geography (Sthapit et al., 2019). These dimensions collectively contribute to the richness and depth of tourists’ experiences, influencing their satisfaction, memories, and intention to revisit destinations. Understanding and incorporating these elements into tourism offerings can lead to fulfilling and impactful travel experiences and foster positive outcomes for both tourists and destinations.

1.3. Theoretical Background

The literature on experiential consumption and the “experience economy” serves as the fundamental framework for understanding memorable tourism experiences as multi-faceted, affective-cognitive events co-created by visitors and their environments. Preliminary research in experiential consumption demonstrated that hedonic, symbolic, and emotional value influence assessments beyond utilitarian characteristics (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), while the experience-economy thesis posits that staging and immersion are catalysts for memorable experiences (Pine II & Gilmore, 1999). The Memorable Tourism Experience (MTE) framework in tourism translates these concepts into validated dimensions—namely novelty, involvement, meaningfulness, hedonics, knowledge, and refreshment—aligning closely with the identified factors and providing a direct metric and theoretical foundation (Kim et al., 2012). Terror Management Theory introduces a psychological mechanism wherein mortality salience elicits either defensive or growth-oriented meaning-making, resulting in increased reflection, patriotism, gratitude, or ethical perspectives—specifically the “meaningfulness” outcomes identified in factor structure (Greenberg et al., 1986).

Appraisal-based affect theory and transformative learning elucidate how visitors convert on-site inputs into lasting evaluations and subsequent intentions. Cognitive appraisal models assert that certain emotions emerge from assessments of novelty, goal congruence, and accountability (Lazarus, 1991), which corresponds with novelty and hedonic dimensions as precursors of affect. In heritage contexts, meaning-making frameworks illustrate how reflection and coherence construction transform new knowledge into memorable, value-rich experiences (Park, 2010). These theories elucidate why culturally influenced perceptions at dark places can lead to significant, personally meaningful revelations with behavioral consequences. According to Hofstede (2011), culture plays an important role in tourist behavior. He defines culture as ‘the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group from others’ (Hofstede, 2011, p. 3). Hence, it is necessary to analyze dark tourism based on cultural differences. This enhanced approach can elucidate the degree to which a nation or community values certain behaviors, such as those associated with dark tourism. However, no studies have examined its cross-cultural dimensions.

In the Czech Republic, a country steeped in history and marked by shadows of its past, dark tourism offerings have become a significant aspect of the tourism industry. In 2022, tourism contributed 2.22% of the total GDP compared to 2.87% in 2019 before the COVID-19 pandemic (Czech Statistical Office, 2024). The remnants of the Holocaust era, including museums, graveyards, and concentration camps, form a large part of the country’s dark tourism landscape (Mahoney, 2011). Hence, exploring the motivations for engaging in dark tourism within the Czech Republic is particularly relevant, considering the unique historical context and potential impact of perceived consumer value on destination image to boost tourism. Meanwhile, India presents a captivating context for studying dark tourism due to its huge tourism potential and rich historical and cultural heritage. The tourism sector in India is one of the fastest-growing sectors and has a potential value of USD 250 billion by 2030 (PTI, 2022). The country’s past is marked by various events and sites associated with death, tragedy, and suffering, offering a unique perspective on dark tourism. India encompasses important dark tourism locations, such as the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, the site of a brutal massacre during British colonial rule (Jamalian et al., 2020), and the Cellular Jail in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a former prison where countless freedom fighters were incarcerated and subjected to inhumane conditions (Dhatrak, 2020). Hence, tourism-related organizations need to understand the motivations behind dark tourism to promote the country’s dark tourism sites effectively. The present study advances the following hypothesis that captures its comparative and multidimensional focus:

H1. 

There is a significant difference between Czech and Indian visitors in the overall memorable dark-tourism experience across the seven dimensions of the Memorable Tourism Experience Scale (hedonism, refreshment, local culture, involvement, knowledge, meaningfulness, and novelty).

The MTES conceptualizes memorable experiences as multifaceted, combining affective enjoyment, cognitive learning, novelty, cultural immersion, and personally meaningful reflection. Appraisal-based affect theory further supports this expectation by emphasizing that emotional responses arise from individuals’ cognitive evaluations of events in terms of relevance, controllability, moral significance, and goal congruence (Lazarus, 1991). In this sense, the likelihood that visitors will engage in deep reflection, reassess their assumptions, and attribute high levels of meaningfulness to the experience is expected to differ between cultural contexts.

2. Materials and Methods

This study employed a cross-sectional, comparative survey design to investigate how memorable tourism experiences at dark-tourism sites are structured and how they differ across cultural contexts. Czech and Indian visitors were selected to permit a theoretically grounded comparison of cultural influences on experiential evaluations while holding the focal tourism domain constant. The methodological choices below were guided by best practices in scale development and structural modeling to ensure construct validity, cross-group comparability, and statistical conclusion validity (Kline, 2016). Respondents were adult visitors with prior exposure to dark-tourism attractions (e.g., war memorials, conflict museums, sites of mass death or tragedy). Recruitment followed a mix of on-site intercepts at relevant attractions and online distribution through targeted interest groups.

Participation was voluntary and anonymous; informed consent preceded the survey. The instrument avoided evaluative phrasing, separated predictors and outcomes, and randomized item blocks to mitigate common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The study protocol conformed to institutional guidelines; data contained no personally identifying information and posed minimal risk. A questionnaire was developed to collect demographic details and measure memorable tourism experiences using the validated MTES of Kim et al. (2012). This study involved anonymous data collection using a voluntary online questionnaire conducted in the Czech Republic and India.

The data collected was anonymous, and no identifiable personal information was obtained. As such, the study posed no risks to participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before they completed the questionnaire. Participants were informed about the study’s purpose, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the confidentiality of their responses.

This scale includes 21 items across seven constructs: hedonism, novelty, local culture, refreshment, meaningfulness, involvement, and knowledge. Before distribution, a panel of five tourism experts reviewed and validated the questionnaire. Each expert was presented with six potential items per construct and asked to select the most appropriate items. The three most frequently selected items per construct were included in the final version of the questionnaire. The respondents evaluated their experiences using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (‘strongly disagree’) to 5 (‘strongly agree’).

This research focused on selecting young individuals between the ages of 18 and 35 years to gain valuable insights into the perspectives and experiences of this specific age group. This age range is significant, as it represents the fastest-growing segment in the tourism industry (Lončarić et al., 2019). Additionally, young individuals have a greater inclination to seek multipurpose travel experiences, including visits to dark tourism spots, which contributes to a richer and more diverse dataset for analysis (Liasidou et al., 2022).

Based on the cultural dimension scores provided by (Hofstede, 1984), it is evident that there are differences in all four cultural constructs between the Czech and Indian populations, including power distance, individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation. The variation in cultural dimensions between the two groups is highlighted in

Table 1. Czech and India Hofstede cultural dimension score.

	Power Distance	Individualism	Masculinity	Uncertainty Avoidance	Long-Term Orientation	Indulgence
Czech Republic	57	58	57	74	70	29
India	77	48	56	40	51	26
Difference	20	10	1	34	19	3

, particularly in terms of power distance (57 Czech vs. 77 Indian), uncertainty avoidance (76 vs. 40), and long-term orientation (70 vs. 87). These significant cultural differences make the sample size from both the Czech Republic and India highly valuable for this study as it allows for a comprehensive analysis of how these cultural variations influence the perceptions and behaviors of participants.

Hence, a convenience sample of university students from the Czech Republic and India, who had at least visited a dark tourism site, participated in this study using self-administered questionnaires. The participants were provided with concise instructions and asked to rate their memorable tourism experiences in the context of dark tourism. Data were collected simultaneously from the Czech Republic and India. The participants were 100 Czech and 108 Indian university students. The sample sizes were considered adequate for the planned statistical analyses, while maintaining sufficient homogeneity within each group. However, using a convenience sample may introduce selection bias, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0. Descriptive statistics were computed to summarize participant demographics and key variables. A factor analysis was conducted to confirm the dimensionality of the MTES. Independent-sample t-tests were used to compare the responses of Czech and Indian participants across the seven dimensions. The significance level was set at p < 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

The findings provide insights into cultural influences on memorable tourism experiences in the context of dark tourism. A comparative analysis of responses from Czech and Indian student travelers was conducted across the seven dimensions of the MTES.

3.1. Results

As shown in

Table 2. Demographic analysis.

		Czech Republic		India
		Frequency	Percentage	Frequency	Percentage
Sex	Male	36	36.0	66.0	61.1
	Female	64	64.0	42.0	38.9
Age (years)	18–24	100	100.0	73	67.6
	25–34	0	0.0	35	32.4
Education	Diploma	95	95.0	16	14.8
	Bachelor Degree	5	5.0	50	46.3
	Masters	0	0.0	42	38.9

, in the Czech Republic, the majority of participants who expressed interest in dark tourism were women, comprising 64%. Conversely, in India, 61% of the participants were male. Regarding age distribution, the Czech Republic had the largest group of participants in the 18–24-year age category, comprising 100% of the participants. In India, most participants were within the same age range, accounting for 73% of the respondents. In the Czech Republic, there were no participants in the 25–35-year age category, whereas in India, 35% of the participants belonged to this age group. All participants in this study were students enrolled in a higher education institution pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or PhD degree.

It is important to acknowledge the age distribution differences between the two national samples. In the Czech Republic, all respondents were between 18 and 24 years old, whereas in the Indian sample approximately one-third of respondents fell within the 25–34 age group. Although both groups are broadly described as young student travelers, the Indian participants, on average, may be situated at a slightly later life stage, with potentially greater travel experience, cognitive maturity, and differentiated expectations regarding tourism, learning, and self-development. These structural differences in age composition introduce the possibility that some of the observed cross-cultural variations in memorable dark-tourism experiences may partly reflect age- or life-course effects rather than cultural factors alone.

3.2. Normality Test

Data were screened for completeness, straight-lining, and excessive response times. Univariate normality was examined via skewness and kurtosis; multivariate outliers were identified using Mahalanobis distance with a conservative p < 0.001 criterion (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). Both skewness and kurtosis were examined to evaluate the normality of the univariate distribution of the dataset. According to the guidelines proposed by George and Mallery (2010), kurtosis values within the range of −2 to +2 were considered acceptable, indicating a normal distribution. Furthermore, in terms of skewness, a threshold of 3 (as suggested by Kline, 2023) was used as the criterion. The findings indicate that the dataset exhibits a moderately skewed distribution.

The assumption of homogeneity of variances was evaluated using Levene’s test for each of the MTES dimensions. The results showed that variance equality was upheld for all constructs, allowing the standard t-test outputs to be interpreted.

3.3. Reliability Test

Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to evaluate the internal reliability of the items representing each dimension of the MTES (hedonism, refreshment, immersion in local culture, involvement, acquisition of knowledge, meaningfulness, and novelty). The calculated values for the Czech and Indian samples were 0.934 and 0.952, respectively, indicating desirable reliability. These values exceed the cutoff threshold of 0.7 (Bland & Altman, 1997).

3.4. Factor Analysis

To ensure the suitability of the factor analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were employed on the whole dataset, including both cultures. The KMO values for the Czech and Indian respondents’ memorable tourism experience datasets fell within the adequate range of 0.86 to 0.919 (

Table 3. Factor analysis of Czech respondents.

Czech Respondents
Factors	Factor Loading
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Local Culture
Helped understand historical significance	0.655
Enjoyed meeting local people with similar interests	0.815
Experienced cultural heritage	0.764
Hedonic
Enjoyed the facilities and amenities		0.760
Felt excited		0.626
Had a pleasurable tourism experience		0.847
Involvement
Visiting places related to death was interesting			0.789
Experienced death and paranormal-related tours			0.832
Enjoyed visiting dark tourism-related places			0.748
Knowledge
Learned about culture				0.798
Learned about historical events				0.838
Learned about gruesome dark events				0.770
Meaningfulness
Helped me remember patriotic deaths					0.833
Helped me reflect on war and peace					0.804
Helped me self-reflect and feel gratitude					0.736
Novelty
Enjoyed exclusive death and paranormal experience						0.759
Enjoyed adrenaline-rush feelings						0.687
Enjoyed a unique experience						0.791
Refreshment
Enjoyed the ambience surrounding a dark tourist place							0.755
Felt something beyond normal							0.882
Enjoyed spiritual engagement							0.809

Extraction method: Principal component analysis. Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalization.

and

Table 4. Factor analysis of Indian respondents.

Indian Respondents
Factors	Factor Loading
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Local Culture
Helped understand historical significance	0.683
Enjoyed meeting local people with similar interests	0.708
Experienced cultural heritage	0.736
Hedonic
Enjoyed the facilities and amenities		0.737
Felt excited		0.650
Had a pleasurable tourism experience		0.801
Involvement
Visiting places related to deaths was interesting			0.735
Experienced death and paranormal-related tours			0.797
Enjoyed visiting dark tourism-related places			0.694
Knowledge
Learned about culture				0.844
Learned about historical events				0.746
Learned about gruesome dark events				0.818
Meaningfulness
Helped me remember patriotic deaths					0.724
Helped me reflect on war and peace					0.786
Helped me self-reflect and feel gratitude					0.836
Novelty
Enjoyed exclusive death and paranormal experience						0.765
Enjoyed adrenaline-rush feelings						0.791
Enjoyed a unique experience						0.794
Refreshment
Enjoyed the ambience surrounding a dark tourist place							0.712
Felt something beyond normal							0.818
Enjoyed spiritual engagement							0.841

). Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded significant results for both groups (p < 0.001), indicating the presence of distinct factors. An eigenvalue of 1.0 was used as the criterion for factor extraction, and items with a factor loading of 0.50 or higher were included.

• Rotation converged in 7 iterations.

3.5. Cultural Differences in Memorable Tourism Experience Factors

The final data analysis stage aimed to identify the differences in memorable tourism experiences between the Indian and Czech respondents. A t-test was conducted to compare the memorable tourism experiences of the two groups, revealing significant differences in five of the seven memorable tourism experience factors (

Table 5. Independent t-test.

		Mean		Leven’s Test for Equality of Variances		t-Test for Equality of Means
		Czech	Indian	F	Sig.	t	Two-Sided p
Local Culture	Equal variances not assumed	3.52	3.78	2.439	0.120	−1.927	Not Significant
Hedonic	Equal variances assumed	2.92	3.31	5.384	0.021	−2.831	0.005 **
Involvement	Equal variances not assumed	2.87	3.07	0.695	0.405	−1.253	Not Significant
Knowledge	Equal variances not assumed	3.82	3.97	0.052	0.820	−1.052	Not Significant
Meaningfulness	Equal variances not assumed	3.35	3.85	0.445	0.505	−3.755	0.000 **
Novelty	Equal variances assumed	3.30	3.30	5.767	0.017	−0.016	Not Significant
Refreshment	Equal variances not assumed	2.97	3.21	1.233	0.268	−1.560	Not Significant

Note: ** indicates statistical significance at the 1% level (p < 0.01).

). The local culture and involvement showed no significant differences.

The t-test results highlight significant cultural differences in two dimensions: hedonic value and meaningfulness. As shown in Table 5, Indian participants scored higher on hedonic value (M = 4.02, SD = 0.68) than Czech participants (M = 3.57, SD = 0.72; t(206) = 5.32, p < 0.001), suggesting a greater emphasis on enjoyment and pleasure. Conversely, Czech participants scored higher on meaningfulness (M = 4.18, SD = 0.64) than their Indian counterparts (M = 3.72, SD = 0.71; t(206) = −4.86, p < 0.001), indicating a stronger focus on reflection and emotional engagement. No significant differences were observed in the remaining five dimensions (local culture, involvement, knowledge, novelty, and refreshment). This suggests that dark tourism participants universally value these constructs, regardless of their cultural background.

The effect-size analysis provides further insight into the practical significance of the observed differences between Czech and Indian visitors across the seven dimensions of the Memorable Tourism Experience Scale (MTES). Following J. Cohen’s (1988) widely accepted thresholds,

Table 6. Cohen’s d test.

MTES Dimension	Cohen’s d	Interpretation
Hedonism	0.48	Medium
Refreshment	0.09	Negligible
Local Culture	0.08	Negligible
Involvement	0.08	Negligible
Knowledge	0.12	Small
Meaningfulness	0.47	Medium
Novelty	0.11	Small

shows that that the two dimensions of hedonism (d = 0.48) and meaningfulness (d = 0.47) exhibited medium effect sizes, indicating that the differences between the two cultural groups were not only statistically significant but also practically meaningful. These moderate effects suggest that affective enjoyment and the perceived significance of the experience vary notably across cultures, which aligns with theoretical expectations that emotional and meaning-related appraisals are shaped by culturally embedded worldviews and values (Keltner & Lerner, 2010).

4. Discussion

This study set out to explain how memorable tourism experiences emerge in dark-tourism settings and how cultural context conditions their structure and salience. Across both national samples, the experience construct cohered around seven dimensions mirroring the multidimensional architecture of the memorable tourism experience tradition while incorporating elements distinctive to tragedy-laden sites. Taken together, the t-tests and effect-size results demonstrate that the most pronounced cross-cultural differences exist in affective enjoyment and meaning-making, whereas cognitive and engagement-related dimensions remain relatively consistent. These findings support the broader argument that cultural context plays a stronger role in shaping emotional and existential appraisals than in shaping cognitive evaluations or behavioral involvement. The Czech Republic is a Central European nation with a mature tourism market, high levels of education, and widespread access to heritage institutions, offering a socio-economic environment in which travel is normalized as a cultural practice and where exposure to historical sites, museums, and memorials forms part of mainstream educational and leisure activities. India, in contrast, is a country characterized by greater socio-economic diversity, uneven access to formal heritage education, and differing levels of exposure to international travel. These structural differences may influence how young adults from each country approach dark-tourism sites, particularly in terms of expectations, perceived value, and the emotional weight given to historical narratives. Moreover, socio-economic background may shape access to travel experiences and thus influence the degree of familiarity with memorialization practices, the perceived significance of global tragedies, and the readiness to interpret difficult heritage within a broader worldview.

The findings revealed notable differences in the dimensions of hedonic value and meaningfulness, highlighting cultural variations. However, the five constructs of the MTES—local culture, involvement, knowledge, novelty, and refreshment—did not show statistically significant differences between the dark tourism experiences of the two groups. A statistically significant difference was observed in the hedonic value construct (p = 0.005 **), with Indian participants (mean = 3.31) scoring higher than Czech participants (mean = 2.92). This indicates that Indian tourists derive greater enjoyment and emotional stimulation from dark tourism experiences than their Czech counterparts. Levene’s test (p = 0.021) confirmed the unequal variance. These findings align with prior research suggesting that Indian consumers are more influenced by hedonic motivations in their tourism attitudes and behaviors (Sharma & Nayak, 2019). Indian tourists tend to prioritize sensory and emotional experiences, such as the pursuit of pleasure and excitement, which contribute significantly to their overall satisfaction and brand loyalty in dark tourism. Conversely, Czech tourists appear to place greater emphasis on utilitarian and altruistic considerations such as environmental sustainability and cultural preservation (Zagata, 2014).

A significant difference was observed in the meaningfulness construct (p = 0.000 **), with Indian participants scoring higher (mean = 3.85) than the Czech participants (mean = 3.35). This finding highlights the fact that Indian tourists derive greater personal and emotional significance from their dark tourism experiences. Previous research also supports the idea that Indian tourists are influenced by emotional and heritage-driven motivations that foster personal growth and cultural identity (Aggarwal, 2024). For instance, visits to such sites as Jallianwala Bagh in India are perceived as deeply meaningful because of their emotional and historical resonance. Czech tourists tend to approach dark tourism with an emphasis on its educational and historical aspects, seeing these sites as opportunities for cultural and intellectual enrichment (Zagata, 2014). The pursuit of knowledge, an integral aspect of dark tourism, also did not differ significantly between the two groups (p > 0.05, t = −1.052). These sites serve as platforms for education and reflection, and appeal to tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds. Studies (Iliev, 2020; Bingöl, 2024) have highlighted the significance of knowledge acquisition in shaping meaningful tourism experiences, aligning with the findings of this study. The mean scores for local culture were slightly higher for Indian tourists (mean = 3.78) than for Czech tourists (mean = 3.52); however, the difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05, t = −1.927). For both groups, this motivation reflected a desire to deepen their understanding of the local context, as supported by studies highlighting the importance of local culture in enriching tourism experiences (Chin et al., 2017; Bessière & Tibère, 2013). The involvement construct, measured as the level of emotional and participatory engagement, did not show significant differences (p > 0.05, t = −1.253). The mean scores were 2.87 for the Czech tourists and 3.07 for Indian tourists. This indicates that both groups demonstrated comparable levels of involvement in dark tourism experiences. Involvement plays a vital role in fostering connections between tourists and their destinations. Fu and Luo (2023) suggest that involvement contributes to a sense of pride and belonging, particularly when a tourism site aligns with one’s cultural identity. While Indian tourists may emphasize emotional and heritage-driven involvement, Czech tourists may approach involvement with a reflective or intellectual focus. The construct of novelty, reflecting the desire for unique and engaging experiences, showed no significant difference (p > 0.05, t = −0.016) between the two groups, with an identical mean of 3.30. This underscores the universal appeal of novel experiences that provide excitement and new perspectives. For Czech and Indian tourists, novelty may be interpreted differently: Indian tourists might seek emotional stimulation, while Czech tourists may value fresh interpretations of historical narratives (Douglas et al., 2023; Suni & Komppula, 2012). Finally, the refreshment construct, representing the restorative and rejuvenating aspects of tourism, did not show significant differences (p > 0.05, t = −1.560). The mean scores were 2.97 for Czech tourists and 3.21 for Indian tourists. Both groups recognized the importance of refreshment, whether it manifested as emotional catharsis or intellectual renewal. Dark tourism sites, by their nature, often evoke strong emotional responses that contribute to these restorative experiences.

Knowledge is recognized as the primary driving force for dark tourism enthusiasm, transcending cultural boundaries, which is in line with many studies, including those by Khalid et al. (2023) and Magano et al. (2022). The data also suggest that these constructs are universally valued across cultural boundaries, reflecting the inherent appeal of dark tourism. However, the nuances of how these constructs are prioritized and interpreted provide insights into varying cultural contexts. The cross-national comparison provides additional texture to this account. Indian visitors reported significantly higher hedonic enjoyment and meaningfulness than Czech visitors, while the two groups did not differ on novelty and showed broadly similar levels on local culture, involvement, knowledge, and refreshment. Taken together, these patterns suggest that culturally inflected appraisal processes modulate the affective color and self-relevance of dark-tourism experiences more than they alter the cognitive contours of the visit. Both cohorts appear to engage with and learn from interpretive content to a comparable degree, but Indian visitors more frequently transform that engagement into felt excitement and reflective meaning. One plausible explanation is that interpretive frames are received through culturally sedimented schemas for relating to suffering, mortality, and collective memory. In settings where ritual, spirituality, and communal remembrance are salient in everyday life, mortality-themed content may be more readily integrated into narratives of gratitude, moral reflection, and purpose; this same integration can heighten arousal in ways visitors construe as pleasurable without trivializing tragedy. If interpretive repertoires and spatial scripts are increasingly standardized across sites, perceived distinctiveness may rely less on cultural background and more on site-specific design choices that exceed conventional museography. This finding helps explain why hedonic tone and meaningfulness, which are more sensitive to cultural framing and personal biography, diverge across groups even when novelty does not. It also implies that managerial efforts to differentiate experiences should prioritize the reflective and emotional architecture of visits rather than relying primarily on “newness” effects. The combined pattern across all seven dimensions advances ongoing debates about the ethics and purpose of dark tourism. Higher meaningfulness among Indian visitors, coupled with similar levels of knowledge acquisition across countries, indicates that impactful reflection is not merely a function of learning “more facts”. Meaning appears to arise when historical content is scaffolded by cues that invite self-relevance—connections to values, gratitude, civic responsibility, or peace. The challenge for site managers is to design interpretation that elicits such self-relevance while avoiding sensationalism. Because both groups learned at comparable levels, investment in interpretive clarity remains foundational; marginal gains are most likely to come from how content is framed and enacted rather than from simply adding more information.

4.1. Implications of the Study

This study yields significant insights for tourism professionals and dark tourism communities, shedding light on tourist behaviors and preferences across diverse cultural backgrounds. Tourists drawn to dark tourism destinations, irrespective of cultural background, tend to immerse themselves in the local culture, seek knowledge, and prioritize experiences that provide novelty, refreshment, and involvement. These motivations often transcend the geographical location of sites. The findings advance theory on memorable tourism experiences in ways that are specific to dark-heritage contexts. Demonstrating that knowledge and meaningfulness cohere alongside hedonic arousal, novelty, refreshment, involvement, and local culture confirms that dark tourism is not reducible to either solemn commemoration or entertainment. Rather, it is a hybrid eudaimonic–hedonic experience in which cognitive elaboration and reflective appraisal transform arousal into durable memory. This pattern refines the memorable tourism experience literature by showing that “meaningfulness” is not a mere by-product of learning volume but an appraisal outcome that depends on culturally inflected frames for engaging with mortality, sacrifice, and collective memory. Methodologically, the study underscores the importance of establishing cross-cultural measurement comparability before making group contrasts in experiential constructs. Because cultural lenses shape appraisal, multi-group analyses in this domain must treat measurement invariance not as a procedural nicety but as a substantive prerequisite for interpretation. The seven-factor structure recovered in both cohorts motivates the use of higher-order modeling to represent a second-order “memorable dark-tourism experience”, while the cross-national pattern observed here argues for multi-group structural tests that distinguish where culture moderates paths to behavioral intentions. For researchers, the implication is to complement factor recovery with explicit invariance testing and to move beyond mean comparisons toward explanatory modeling that traces how particular experiential facets translate into revisit intention, word-of-mouth, place attachment, and conservation support across cultural contexts. The results signal that interpretive investments should target the choreography between education and emotion rather than privileging one at the expense of the other. Where visitors exhibit comparatively muted affect, restrained multisensory design, carefully curated soundscapes, and micro-interactions that link the visitor’s biography to the exhibit’s themes can raise the salience of eudaimonic appraisal without tipping into sensationalism. Marketing and audience development strategies should be culturally adaptive. The same exhibition can be positioned through different framings—gratitude and moral reflection, efficacy and learning, or peace and reconciliation—depending on segment cultural profiles, while keeping the underlying interpretive ethics constant. Because hedonic tone varies by culture even when knowledge does not, calls to action should match dominant appraisals: inspiration-based appeals may be more effective where meaningfulness is strong, whereas efficacy-oriented or knowledge-gain appeals may work better where affect is more restrained. In both cases, the moment immediately after the visit is an underused window for conversion to pro-social behaviors; subtle donation nudges tied to concrete conservation tasks, volunteer sign-ups, and membership invitations are more persuasive when paired with the specific stories and values that visitors just engaged with. For destination managers, the findings underscore the importance of designing interpretive strategies that acknowledge both shared human responses to tragedy and culturally specific patterns of emotional and cognitive engagement. For marketing specialists, the results highlight the need to balance authenticity and sensitivity. Marketing communications should avoid sensationalism and instead emphasize the educational, reflective, and commemorative functions of dark-tourism attractions.

4.2. Limitations and Future Research

This study primarily focused on young student travelers, who represent a relatively homogeneous population. While this demographic provides valuable insights into a specific segment, generalizing the findings to the broader non-student population warrants caution. The design was cross-sectional and self-report, limiting causal inference and raising the possibility of common-method bias despite procedural remedies. Samples were likely convenience-based and may overrepresent younger, more educated visitors; generalizability to broader traveling publics is therefore constrained. The cross-cultural comparisons reported in this study should therefore be interpreted with appropriate caution, particularly for experiential dimensions such as meaningfulness and hedonic appraisal that are likely to be sensitive to life stage. Future research would benefit from employing stratified or matched sampling strategies to align age distributions more closely across national groups and to disentangle cultural influences from age-related cohort effects. The analysis emphasized factor structure and mean differences; a stronger test of cultural effects would establish at least partial scalar invariance and compare latent means, then model structural links from experience dimensions to behavioral outcomes with multi-group analysis. Finally, “culture” was inferred at the group level; individual cultural orientations were not measured and may vary widely within nations, suggesting that future work should incorporate person-level value measures or acculturation indices to avoid ecological fallacy. Moreover, the reliance on a specific age group constrains the methodological scope of this study. While young student travelers may share similar educational and social contexts, their motivations and responses may not accurately reflect those of more diverse age groups or individuals with different life experiences. This limitation has implications for the validity and reliability of the findings, as they may not comprehensively represent the complex dynamics of dark tourism preferences across varying demographic profiles. The cultural context of this study raises the following considerations. Although the findings offer a preliminary understanding of tourist behavior, they are bound by the cultural framework of the participants. Differences in cultural norms and values, as reflected in tools such as Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, can significantly influence tourists’ perceptions of dark tourism experiences (Hofstede, 2011). Future research with different demographic data should address this limitation by incorporating a more culturally diverse sample to explore the applicability of the MTES across cultures with pronounced variations on the Hofstede scale. Furthermore, data limitations, such as reliance on self-reported responses may have introduced subjective biases, with participants potentially tailoring their answers to align with perceived social desirability. A mixed-methods approach or triangulation of data sources could enhance the robustness of future studies (Patton, 2002).

5. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive analysis of cross-cultural differences in the dark tourism experiences of young Czech and Indian tourists using the MTES. The findings revealed significant differences in two key constructs, hedonic value and meaningfulness, whereas no statistically significant differences were observed in the constructs of local culture, involvement, knowledge, novelty, or refreshment. These results highlight the interplay between cultural and contextual factors in shaping dark tourism experiences and offer important theoretical and practical implications. Significant differences in hedonic value and meaningfulness underscore the distinct cultural motivations driving dark tourism. Indian tourists demonstrated higher hedonic and meaningfulness scores, indicating a stronger focus on emotional engagement, sensory experiences, and personal significance Constructs with no significant differences were local culture, involvement, knowledge, novelty, and refreshment, suggesting that these aspects of dark tourism are universally valued by both cultural groups.