Stakeholder Engagement and Social Networks: Enhancing Sustainable Food Waste Management in Zanzibar’s Tourist Hotels

Abstract

Zanzibar has witnessed fast growth in tourism due to its natural beauty and unique cultural values. On average, about 600,000 tourists arrive annually, creating demand for more hotels, which significantly adds to the generation of waste streams on the island. Food waste is a multifaceted issue and a cross-sectoral problem. However, existing research on food waste management in hospitality focuses mainly on operational and managerial perspectives, while overlooking the role of stakeholder engagement and their social interactions, creating a gap in understanding the relational and context-specific factors shaping sustainable practices, particularly in small island destinations. Therefore, collaborative efforts from different stakeholders are required to ensure sustainable waste management. This study aims to map the key stakeholders and analyze engagement dynamics and structural patterns of social networks to improve hotel food waste management as part of a sustainable tourism strategy in Zanzibar. Stakeholder mapping and analysis, and social network analysis, were applied to examine both the dynamic and interaction patterns. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with different stakeholders related to tourism and waste management operations to solicit their roles, responsibilities, interests, knowledge, interaction, information sharing, influence, and power in decision-making. The results revealed that waste management is the responsibility of local authorities, and there was limited interaction, information sharing, and coordination among stakeholders and across sectors. Building collaborative relationships is important and can be achieved by stimulating interactions through active communication platforms, including social media and online webinar sessions. Moreover, the study proposes a context-specific model for analyzing small-scale stakeholder interactions regarding food waste management in tourist hotels that can inform future stakeholder coordination and policy interventions.

1. Introduction

Tourism is a large business sector, a key engine for job creation, and a driving force for economic growth and development (International Labour Organization, 2016). Tourist hotel activities result in large quantities and varieties of waste, which tend to expand as the number of hotels and tourists increases. Food waste represents the largest waste stream by weight in the hotel industry (Filimonau & De Coteau, 2019). However, its management has become a concern, which calls for mitigation measures to avoid its detrimental effects on the socio-economic welfare and the environment (Pirani & Arafat, 2016; Mohan et al., 2017; Eriksson et al., 2019). This not only requires technological and operational solutions but also effective stakeholder engagement to foster collaboration, knowledge exchange, information sharing, and coordinated actions toward sustainability.

Previous studies have investigated many aspects of food waste management, mostly with a focus on technology and political aspects, while only a few discussed the interactions of different stakeholders within the waste management systems (Caniato et al., 2014; Caniato et al., 2015; W. Xu et al., 2016; dos Muchangos et al., 2017; X. Xu et al., 2024). Therefore, the recognition of stakeholders’ participation and engagement in waste management is significant to understand the complexity of human attitudes and behavior, both internally at the hotels and up- and down-stream within the waste value chain. From the perspective of stakeholder theory, hotels need to understand and account for all their stakeholders (Irwansyah et al., 2022). The stakeholders may have a stake in the form of interest, influence, power, or participation in activities related to waste management. Stakeholder analysis of the waste management system gives importance to their respective knowledge and perception of the system, rather than focusing on observations by experts only.

Recent studies have also examined stakeholder collaboration and social interactions in managing sustainability challenges within the hospitality and tourism sector. This includes the work conducted in five-star hotels in Thailand, which examined stakeholder collaboration at different operational stages, anywhere from planning to donation, and the findings are tied with a theoretically grounded framework (food waste hierarchical principle), which provides both theoretical and applied insights (Kattiyapornpong et al., 2023). Also, another study conducted in hotels in Langkawi, Malaysia, investigated sustainable hotel operators’ practices at island tourism destinations, emphasizing the importance of context-specific approaches (Kasavan et al., 2017). In Australia, the empirical work investigated how stakeholder groups influence environmental sustainability strategies in the hotel industry (Khatter et al., 2021); in addition, there was the research conducted in the hotel industry in China, which proposed a framework for stakeholder roles and engagement pathways in hotel environmental management, hence bridging the stakeholder theory and practical context (Wang et al., 2024). These works illustrate research interest in context-driven stakeholder engagement models for sustainability and build this study’s foundation, which proposes a visual context-specific stakeholder engagement model tailored to micro-level networks in food waste management on small islands.

In the African context, stakeholder engagement in waste management is considered a new strategy and a driver for long-lasting support of societal decisions and actions. It promotes behavioral changes and taking responsibility for decisions that are important for functional waste systems (Kaza & Bhada-Tata, 2018). Stakeholder engagement provides many benefits to environmental management research, including greater public acceptance, higher implementation success of interventions, wider communication of findings, and greater impact on decision-making, as well as improving the evidence base (Haddaway et al., 2017).

The reference (Stratoudakis et al., 2019) argued that engaging dominant players to change their conventional mentalities on traditional procedures leads to positive effects and allows for the construction of different types of capital, including the following: social (increase in trust and collaborations), human (new capacities and skills), intellectual (new knowledge and learning), and political (new services and infrastructures). Similarly, (Vasconcelos et al., 2022) emphasized that stakeholders’ participatory processes are key for implementing innovative and sustainable waste prevention and management plans. This can ensure a mindset that also leads to a change in existing practices and influences their behavior.

Stakeholder analysis is a process that is used to identify the influence of individual actors in relation to achieving the project outcome. This is accomplished through a desk review and participatory internal meetings or workshops, and, where appropriate, key informant interviews. The analysis aims to answer who the actors are and how they affect the project’s success or failure. Stakeholder analysis methods have three steps, which include stakeholder identification, classification, and investigation, to understand their characteristics (W. Xu et al., 2016).

Furthermore, stakeholder analysis is based on the consideration that the system is driven by social roles and interaction, being strongly knowledge-based, with an important role in inter-organizational communication, information collection and sharing, and awareness of the current state-of-the-art and general situation (Otchere et al., 2014; Caniato et al., 2015). Stakeholder analysis and social network analysis are ways to study environmental, resource management, and public governance issues (W. Xu et al., 2016). Social network analysis has the potential to examine the behavior and interaction of multiple stakeholders. A combination of stakeholder analysis and social network analysis is found to be beneficial in decision-making processes, to improve stakeholder engagement and enhance their network (Caniato et al., 2014; Caniato et al., 2015; Lishan et al., 2021; dos Muchangos et al., 2017).

On the other hand, stakeholders’ willingness to exchange information and their shared responsibility to organize, mobilize, participate, collectively prepare an action plan, and implement activities are considered crucial for taking effective measures regarding waste problems and the enhancement of governance activities (Woldesenbet, 2021). The study also added that the structure of collaboration among stakeholders should consider the distribution of responsibility and power.

Effective communication and collaboration are crucial for the smooth operation of a hotel and the positive experience of its guests. A previous study conducted by (Iwara et al., 2020) in Nigeria revealed a positive correlation between communication strategy and hotel performance, concluding that an effective communication strategy results in improved service quality and increased operational efficiency of a hotel (performance) and its competitiveness in the market. Therefore, regular communication should be conducted by hotel proprietors with their employees using different communication platforms, such as social media and face-to-face meetings. Similarly, (Deshpande et al., 2024) elaborated that collaboration among staff, including front desk, housekeeping, and food services, is essential for providing a seamless and exceptional guest experience, resulting in a higher satisfaction rate. Successful collaboration and communication can be achieved in the organizational structure if the senior hotel managers call for macro-management over micro-management; in these instances, staff expect more autonomy and trust from senior management, and working environments that encourage open communication, which makes them feel comfortable sharing feedback and suggestions (Borzillo & Alshahrani, 2024)

Moreover, the shift from a linear to a circular economic waste management system needs planning and close engagement of stakeholders at each stage of operations in the food service value chain to reduce the problem of food waste in tourism establishments. Hotels, as key components in the tourism industry, can commit to environmental sustainability in their business by complying with environmental standards, such as those highlighted in “Green Key”. “Green Key” is an internationally recognized certification system operating in many hospitality facilities in Europe and other parts of the world. The certificate is awarded to facilities and establishments that commit to sustainable business practices. Currently, more than 5000 hotels in more than 60 countries are “Green Key” certified (Foundation for Environmental Education, 2023).

In Zanzibar, solid waste management remains a big challenge. According to the latest available official data, it is estimated that approximately 663 tons of solid waste are produced in Zanzibar per day (Zanzibar Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA), 2019), with 80% generated by the hotels and restaurants catering to tourists (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2017; Revolutionary government of Zanzibar, 2020). Many tourist hotels are located in areas with rural characteristics and relatively low waste generation per capita. Therefore, most solid waste generated in these areas originates from the hotels. Hence, collective efforts and collaboration from all relevant stakeholders are required to enable systemic changes to improve the waste management system.

This study considers different stakeholders in relation to their roles, responsibilities, interests, knowledge, and power in decision-making, interactions, and influence on food waste management operations in tourist hotels. The current waste system is linear, with most waste generated being disposed of in landfills, which is the least preferred option for food waste. Hence, a change towards a more circular system demands the active engagement of all relevant stakeholders.

Although food waste in the hospitality sector has been investigated from operational perspectives, the focus has been on technical and managerial solutions. However, little is known about the contribution of stakeholder engagement and social networks in shaping waste management practices, particularly within tourist hotels in small island contexts. This study aims to map the key stakeholders and examine engagement dynamics and social network patterns in hotel food waste management. A stakeholder and network analysis was conducted as part of exploring and contextualizing food waste management in tourist hotels in Zanzibar. The study also considered how to establish communication platforms and forums for coordinated decision-making, thereby strengthening collaboration and information sharing among stakeholders—a feature currently lacking in the system. The absence of such knowledge has significant implications in Zanzibar, where tourism is the main driver of the economy and food waste poses both environmental and social challenges. Without clear evidence of how stakeholders contribute and interact, opportunities for coordinated action are missed, and policy risk is stated as a goal rather than an actionable measure, limiting the progress towards achieving the sustainability targets set out in Zanzibar’s vision for sustainable tourism articulated in the Zanzibar Sustainable Tourism Declaration. By addressing this gap, the study offers practical pathways to strengthen collaboration and partnerships among stakeholders, thereby supporting the island’s transition towards sustainability in the tourism sector. Therefore, the study contributes to the theoretical knowledge of stakeholder engagement, focusing on interaction, communication practices, and information-sharing mechanisms related to food waste management in tourist hotels.

Existing studies and models of stakeholder engagement provide broad frameworks that emphasize policy-level or institutional interactions and overlook the dynamics of micro-level interactions in the context of tourism food waste regarding tourism-dependent islands and destinations. In island contexts, where stakeholder networks are smaller and more interdependent, understanding the localized interactions, including those with hotels, suppliers, waste collectors, and the community, that directly influence the effectiveness of waste reduction and management strategies is essential, although not sufficiently explored in the current research. To address this gap, this study introduces a novel methodological model that integrates qualitative insights with social network analysis to capture micro-level stakeholder engagement dynamics in tourism food waste management; an approach not previously applied in this context. The study specifically introduces a model that offers a methodological innovation for analyzing and visualizing engagement dynamics within small-scale stakeholder networks, such as business or knowledge networks. This helps to increase our understanding of how stakeholders’ relationships influence collective actions, knowledge flow, and decision-making to achieve sustainability. The model also offers practical insights that can inform future stakeholder coordination, policy design, and collaborative strategies in sustainability-oriented initiatives. Unlike conventional models that remain descriptive or emphasize broad policy-level interactions, this study enhances methodological innovation by integrating qualitative insights from semi-structured interviews with social network analysis metrics to capture micro-level engagement dynamics. This combined approach provides a unique analytical and visual tool that makes visible the relative positions of stakeholders, the strength of their relationships, and the flow of knowledge and information in food waste management within tourism-dependent islands. By systematically applying this dual lens, the study contributes both a context-specific model and a transferable framework applicable to other small-scale, resource-constrained destinations facing similar sustainability challenges. This is the first study to develop and apply such an integrated stakeholder network model to tourism food waste management in island destinations, giving it a unique methodological contribution to the field.

2. Methodology

2.1. Study Design

The study has employed descriptive and explorative qualitative methods. Qualitative research was chosen because of the explorative nature of the topic and to obtain deeper insights into the problem, grounded in stakeholders’ perceptions, experiences, and behavior.

2.2. Data Collection

Given COVID-19 restrictions and hotel closure, the data collection was conducted within a 6-month period to allow engagement with both hotel stakeholders (managers) when hotels are in operation, and sectoral and community actors. Respondents were purposively selected to ensure representation from key categories of stakeholders directly involved or affected by food waste in tourist hotels, including those who can influence food waste practices. Secondly, data was collected through key informant interviews with purposefully selected stakeholders to obtain an in-depth understanding of the food waste issues at tourist hotels. This was performed by eliciting the perceptions of different stakeholders who influence the operation of food waste management at tourist hotels. Data helped to identify waste-related issues, the sharing of information, important stakeholders, and how their engagement may facilitate the reinforcement of sustainable practices, as well as the opportunity for improvement in the sector. A total of 32 participants from different sectors, both public and private, were involved in the study, as indicated in

Table A1. Identification of stakeholders and their network categories.

Network Category	Stakeholder Category	Institution/Authority	Interviewee
Regulatory/policy	1. Central government	Zanzibar Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA)	Director
		Zanzibar Commission for Tourism (ZCT)	Executive Secretary
	2. Local government	North A District Council	Director
		South District Council	Director
Business	3. Recognized private waste company	Zanzibar Recycling Company (ZANREC) operating in South	Manager
		Ham Garden Design and Disposal operating in North	Manager
	4. Tourism organizations	Zanzibar Association of Tourism Investors (ZATI)	Director
		Zanzibar Association of Tour Operators (ZATO);	Director
		Hotels Association of Zanzibar (HAZ)	Director
	5. Composting firm	Green Composting LTD	Manager
	6.Food suppliers	North and South hotels	Suppliers
	7. Hotels	North and South Districts	General managers
Knowledge	8. Environmental NGOs	Zanzibar Youth Education Development Support Association (ZAYEDESA)	Assistant Director
	9. Academia/Researchers	State University of Zanzibar (SUZA)	Lecturers
	10. Research organizations/institutes	Department of research, Zanzibar Planning Commission	Director
Community	11. Local community	Kendwa, Nungwi, Paje, Jambiani and Michamvi	Community members
	12.Local community leaders	Kendwa, Nungwi, Paje and Jambiani	Shehas
	13. Kibele landfill manager	Urban Municipality	Manager
	14. Farmers	N/A	Vegetable farmers

(see Appendix A). This included hotel mangers (10), government institutions (4), government research bodies (1), community leaders (4), private waste companies (3), tourism organizations (3), environmental NGOs (1), academicians (1), municipal officer in charge of landfill (1), food suppliers (2), and vegetables farmers (2). Participants held decision-making or operational roles relevant to food waste management in tourist hotels, and both male (28) and female (4) participants were represented. The diversity of respondents provided multiple perspectives across different roles in the food waste management process. In addition, participants were assured of confidentiality and anonymity, with no hotel or institution/individual names disclosed during reporting to reduce the potential bias on socially desirable responses. Triangulation of data from diverse groups of stakeholders (hotel managers and staff, community, NGOs, and sectoral actors) helped with the cross-verification of information. We also cross checked the consistency between what different respondents said and analyzed discrepancies between interview accounts and workshop discussions, all of which enhanced the validity of the findings.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted, as they facilitate depth and richness of data and provide a balance between consistency across all participants and flexibility in data collection (Kallio et al., 2016). The interview guide included open-ended questions that explored key areas of stakeholder engagement and social networks, such as stakeholders’ roles and engagement, social network and collaborations, policy and regulation context, barriers and challenges to effective collaboration, enablers influencing stakeholder engagement within the network, sustainability practices, social and environmental outcomes perceived by stakeholders, and views on how collaboration can be improved in the future to shape sustainability practices in the hotel sector.

These qualitative data (interviews) were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and ideas derived from the data collected. Thematic analysis was employed to guide the interpretation of qualitative data as it provides a flexible yet rigorous approach for identifying and analyzing patterns of meaning and supports the establishment of trustworthiness and credibility in research findings (Nowell et al., 2017). Following Braun and Clarke (2022), thematic analysis is not simply a technical procedure, but an interpretative practice that requires reflexivity and transparency. These two foundations informed the coding and theme development in this study, ensuring rigor and coherence in the interpretation of findings. This qualitative approach involves several key steps, including using a conceptual framework and research aims/research questions to identify themes in the data, building sets of codes to categorize the data material, making sense of the data material, and selecting data relevant to the research aims. This process was performed manually by the researcher. By considering the research focus, the researcher categorized key areas of analysis, such as stakeholder roles and responsibilities, forms of engagement, social interaction patterns, and benefits of engagement. The process started with familiarization with the data through repeatedly reading and reviewing interviews and field notes, breaking text data into code categories, and then identifying themes. Initial codes were generated, such as regular meetings, informal discussion, central actor, strong ties or weak ties, policy support, lack of awareness to reflect stakeholder practices, interactions, barriers, enablers, and outcomes. Related codes were clustered and refined into broader themes that captured underlying patterns across the data set. For example, codes related to communication practices and participation were grouped under the theme of stakeholder engagement practices; codes related to connections and information bottlenecks informed the theme of network dynamics, and codes related to enabling factors were grouped into the theme of enablers of collaborations. The identified themes reflect major patterns of how stakeholders engage, interact, and contribute to the food waste management outcomes. Due to the large volume of interviews, the researcher considered the data of each interview and notes of interest using the themes and code categories under key areas of analysis/key topics discussed.

Furthermore, it was investigated how the communities adjacent to hotels could be engaged to improve food waste management in tourist hotels. The data from these five shehias was gathered through participatory workshops in two areas (North A and South Districts). Each community workshop involved 25 participants. They were drawn from local households and community-based organizations. The workshop engaged individuals of varying ages, and representation included youth aged 18–25 years, men and women aged above 25, women’s groups, and local leaders from each community. This approach was preferred because it provided a platform that helped the researcher further explore the situation of the problem and understand issues, and hence, this advanced meaning negotiation between the researcher and participants (Ørngreen & Levinsen, 2017). The purpose of this workshop in this study was to explore community perspectives and opportunities for collaboration with hotels to improve food waste management. Workshop participants were selected prior to communication with the local leaders (Shehas) from communities surrounding hotels.

During the workshops, participants were divided into four groups to facilitate effective discussion. The workshop programs covered group discussion on waste in hotels and the related problems, suggested solutions to the common problems mentioned and prioritized them, and finally, concluded on the action plan and way forward, with target actors involved to initiate the changes.

2.3. Brief Description of the Two Communities Involved in the Study

The study was conducted and limited to coastal hotels and their surrounding communities in the North and South District of Unguja Island, Zanzibar. The locations of the selected hotels involved in the study are indicated in Figure 1 below.

The communities constitute members from different shehias (lowest level of governance) including Paje, Jambiani, and Michamvi in the South District and Kendwa and Nungwi in the North A District. Both community groups were characterized by people who engaged in fishing, especially men, and women involved in social-economic activities, such as seaweed farming and hand crafting, while some were employed at hotels.

The study investigated the communities’ understanding of the problem of waste and its impact on the environment, as well as their social welfare, indicating opportunities for social change and adaptation of new initiatives to improve waste management in their areas.

2.4. Stakeholder Mapping and Analysis

With reference to the stakeholder theory (Were et al., 2018; Khatter et al., 2021; Vrontis et al., 2022; Irwansyah et al., 2022), a map of different categories of relevant stakeholders was outlined and their characteristics analyzed. Stakeholder analysis helped to gain knowledge that is useful for understanding the relevant groups in the context of food waste prevention and management. Mapping of interests, roles, influence, power, and how the different actors perceive the problem area informed this analysis. This specific study was limited to those stakeholders directly in the tourism sector and waste management programs.

Stakeholder analysis was conducted using a power/interest grid matrix (Tennakoon & Kulatunga, 2021; Garcia-Garcia et al., 2017), which compares stakeholders based on their authority and involvement in food waste management. The interest (concern), power (capacity), roles, and knowledge (awareness, understanding, and mindset) of different categories of stakeholders were analyzed through interviews. A common stakeholder analysis is categorized as a top-down or analytical method of categorization, in which stakeholders are placed into four groups based on their relative power and interest, or on their interest and influence over the issue being discussed. The power/interest matrix could contribute to the discovery of marginal stakeholders, who have less control over, and less interest in, the problem and who may, consequently, be overlooked in the analysis of the problem (Tennakoon & Kulatunga, 2021).

To make the process more explicit, the stakeholder mapping and analysis followed a structured sequence (Figure 2), including key stakeholders’ identification as a first step. This was performed through preliminary document review and semi-structured interviews with sectoral actors. Second, stakeholders were categorized into broad groups (e.g., government institutions, hotels, suppliers, community members, waste companies, and NGOs) to capture the diversity of roles within the tourism food waste management system. Third, stakeholder characteristics, including their roles, interests, influence, power, and perceptions of the problem, were analyzed. Fourth, the relative position of each actor was assessed using a power/interest matrix, which enabled the visualization of stakeholders according to their level of authority (power) and degree of involvement (interest) in hotel food waste management. Fifth, interview data were used to refine this categorization and to validate stakeholder positions within the matrix. Finally, the resulting stakeholder map was used as an input for subsequent social network analysis, linking structural engagement patterns with contextual knowledge of stakeholder roles. This step-by-step approach enhanced clarity on how stakeholders were identified, categorized, and positioned. The flow diagram (Figure 2) outlines the mapping process, while the visual display (Figure 3) illustrates the mapping outcome and supports the reproducibility of the analysis.

2.5. Social Network Mapping and Analysis

Social network analysis builds upon stakeholder analysis. It aims to determine how the actors are connected and how the network of actors might influence the project’s success. The social network analysis helps to map the existing connections concerning collaborations, partnerships, communication, and sharing of information (Caniato et al., 2015; dos Muchangos et al., 2017).

The researcher constructed a small-scale stakeholder interactions approach by identifying, categorizing, and mapping stakeholders into contextualized network types, such as business and knowledge networks. Therefore, social network analysis was conducted using the proposed model to understand relationships, interactions, alliances, and conflicts among and between stakeholders, such as knowledge and business networks. While the existing stakeholder mapping tools emphasize static relationships, this model focuses on interactive analysis by capturing context-specific flows of engagement and collaboration within micro-networks of tourism hotel actors. The researchers used interview data to analyze the structure of the networks and the influence of different stakeholders. With a focus on tourist hotels, a network model with four categories (business, knowledge, regulatory, and community networks) outlines how tourist hotels are related to different stakeholders and their interactions. Hotels influence in different directions, but they are also influenced by different stakeholders. Some stakeholders overlap in the model based on their current relationships, influence, and the expected roles they can play in the system in the future. In addition to mapping stakeholder groups and their linkages, basic social network analysis metrics were calculated to reinforce the analytical depth of the stakeholder map. Degree centrality was used to identify the most connected actors, betweenness centrality highlighted stakeholders that act as bridges between networks, and network density provided an overall indication of connectivity. The categorization of stakeholders into high, moderate, or low across these key network metrics was based on their relative roles, functions, and positions in the hotel food waste management network. Relative categories were employed to provide a context-specific and qualitative interpretation of stakeholder dynamics (patterns of influence and cohesion), which is consistent with exploratory network approaches in sustainability and policy studies (Borgatti et al., 2009; Scott, 2017). These metrics were integrated into Figure 3 through adjusted node sizes and edge thickness to provide an analytical representation of stakeholder engagement dynamics. The analysis applied social network analysis (SNA) principles where stakeholders were represented as nodes, with node size adjusted to reflect the relative importance of stakeholders/relative degree centrality within the network, i.e., the number of direct connections each actor maintained within the network, with larger circles representing central actors that maintained multiple or influential connections, medium circles indicating semi-central actors with bridging functions, and smaller circles reflecting peripheral actors with fewer or indirect ties. Similarly, the strength of relationships/intensity of interactions, derived from reported frequency and intensity of engagement (e.g., regulatory oversight, operational collaboration, or knowledge sharing), are represented by varying edge thickness. Thicker lines indicate strong and frequent ties or formal collaborations, while thinner lines denote weaker or less frequent connections, or occasional interactions. Colors distinguish between network types, including business (blue), knowledge (green), regulatory (red), and community (orange). This network visualization illustrates both the differentiated positions and relational dynamics of stakeholders within the network, thereby complementing the conceptual framework of (Remmen & Holgaard, 2004) with quantitative evidence.

3. Results

3.1. Stakeholder Identification

Based on the interviews with different stakeholders, the study identified various categories of stakeholders and arranged them in their respective networks. This included regulatory, business, local community, and knowledge networks as shown in Table A1 (See Appendix A). Together, these four networks complement each other by providing oversight, services, participation, and expertise, forming the foundation for a more integrated hotel solid waste management system.

The regulatory network comprises the central government and local government authorities. Interviews with stakeholders indicated that these stakeholders have the potential to influence all parts of the SWM system. Key central institutions include the following: Zanzibar Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA), overseeing national waste management; Zanzibar Commission for Tourism (ZCT), setting tourism regulations; and Zanzibar Investment Promotion Authority (ZIPA), which promotes and regulates investment projects, including hotel operations. At the local government level, district councils manage SWM within their areas, develop bylaws derived from national laws, and enforce both national and local regulations, giving them significant influence. Local leaders (shehas) in the community, appointed by regional commissioners, also form part of this governance structure.

Business networks include hotels and tourism organizations such as Zanzibar Association of Tourism Investors (ZATI), Hotel Association Zanzibar (HAZ), and Zanzibar Association of Tour Operators (ZATO). In addition, there are local tour operators linked to international companies, like TUI and Booking.com, whose pressures encourage sustainable practices. This group also includes private waste companies (ZANREC and Harm Garden), which provide hotel waste services, and Green Composting LTD, which is also considered to be part of the community network, as it engages local youth in making compost and reducing organic waste in the municipal waste streams.

The local community network comprises shehia members and some local waste collectors. The community is indirectly involved but strongly affected by hotel operations, particularly when waste is disposed of near villages. Overlaps in SWM activities expose communities to impacts, while keeping livestock offers untapped potential to reduce food waste in hotels through repurposing leftovers as animal feed.

The knowledge network includes government research departments, academic experts, and NGOs that support developing waste solutions through research, training, and environmental education. Key actors, such as the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), collaborate with tourism stakeholders on SWM research and capacity building, while the Zanzibar Youth Education Development Support Association (ZAYEDESA) plays a significant role in environmental education and promotes eco-friendly practices at hotels.

3.2. Power, Knowledge, and Interest of Stakeholders

The power/interest matrix (Figure 3) is used to visualize stakeholders related to hotel food waste management (FWM) and their classification in relation to power and interest, highlighting variations in influence, engagement, and potential roles in shaping sustainable food waste practices. Stakeholder groups are categorized into four predefined clusters. Stakeholders on the upper-right side of the grid have strong power and interest. The basis of defining these clusters is determined by the interest (concern) stakeholders have and how much power (authority) they have to change the waste management system into a more circular and sustainable system.

During interviews, it was revealed that ZEMA has the mandate to enforce and regulate environmental laws and has the highest power and interest in promoting sustainable FWM at hotels. The role of the institution is to ensure hotels’ compliance with laws, aiming to prevent pollution and ensure the safe disposal of waste: “We can intervene if the hotel waste disposal is not proper” (participant from ZEMA). The participant emphasized their responsibilities, reflecting the authority’s regulatory role in monitoring hotel practices and highlighting how government actors actively engage in safeguarding environmental standards to provide oversight accountability, which is linked to the identified theme of “Stakeholder roles and engagement”. The respondent also highlighted the low capacity of district councils to handle waste, explaining why the councils have decided to outsource waste management services to private companies. Similarly, the ZCT has played an active role in the Sustainable Tourism Declaration, which was endorsed in February 2023. Through the “Greener Zanzibar Campaign,” the ZCT aims to shift hotel practices toward more environmentally sustainable approaches, with a particular focus on sustainable waste management within tourism accommodations. As a regulatory body in the tourism sector, the ZCT possesses the authority to influence and drive change within the industry.

District councils, which are in charge of overseeing and supervising waste collection and disposal in their respective districts, expressed high interest but declared less power to act. They pointed out that issues related to hotel investment are more controlled by ZIPA: “We don’t have power, investment is under ZIPA” (respondent from district council). Based on the discussion with the respondent from the district council, ZIPA could be an important stakeholder since they are the ones issuing the license for the hotel facility investment and have a set of requirements for the construction of this kind of establishment. However, this government entity is reported to have less interest in issues related to waste management.

The private waste company ZANREC demonstrated high interest, despite having limited power to influence SWM practices. They abide by laws and work under contracts controlled by district councils. During the interview, the respondent from ZANREC expressed the following: “Our goal is to see sustainability of the island, so reducing the waste at hotels is a good thing for everyone, and will reduce dumping of waste within communities”. To justify the interest, the respondent also added the following: “We advise hoteliers to compost their food waste if they have enough space”. This highlights how stakeholder engagement contributes not only to improved hotel practices but also to wider communities and environmental outcomes linked to the identified theme of “Social and environmental outcomes of engagement”. Encouraging composting at hotels directly supports waste reduction, helps safeguard community spaces from illegal dumping, and aligns with broader sustainability goals of the island and tourism sector in particular. Additionally, the participant from ZANREC recommended that “there should be enforcement on where the waste should go after leaving the hotel”. In contrast, another waste company (Harm Garden) showed little interest in preventive and waste reduction initiatives at hotels and had limited knowledge in many aspects of food waste management.

Local communities are the stakeholders most directly affected by the impact of SWM from hotels. The participation of the community in solid waste management differs based on their level of awareness. The Kendwa community, which is more conscientious and knowledgeable, expressed high interest in food waste management practices, while the community without enough knowledge and awareness showed neither interest nor power. The Kendwa community was actively engaged in the waste management programs of the ZANREC waste management company, and the company provided incentives to children and women who participated in the program. For example, school children collected the plastic, and women were responsible for cleaning the environment outside the hotels’ gates.

A firm such as Green Composting LTD is a stakeholder that works in promoting food waste utilization. They have maximum interest in resource utilization, such as composting, but have low power. They could play a key role in scaling up food composting programs by making alliances with farmers in the community. Green Composting LTD is working with food and organic waste from hotels in Nungwi; however, they operate with a small number of hotels.

The active NGO ZAYEDESA is a member of the Foundation of Environmental Education (FEE). Again, this actor can be a catalyst for promoting action and change in the community, but does not have much power to act.

Tourism organizations such as ZATI are there to create a bridge between the government and the tourism industry. It is connecting actors through Fora and has the responsibility of pushing the government for regulations on behalf of the hotels. However, waste is not prioritized enough, and they do not exercise power over waste management. Given that most hotels are members of ZATI, the organization could be leveraged to ensure the implementation of sustainable SWM practices in hotels.

Finally, environmental experts, researchers, and academia can contribute with knowledge and technical support to promote practices regarding different aspects of food waste management. However, they have low power, although they are concerned.

Concerning knowledge, generally, all stakeholders have indicated some degree of knowledge regarding food waste management. However, their level of involvement and commitment to implementing changes was based on their role-specific accountability and responsibilities in the waste management system.

3.3. Collaboration, Communication, and Information Sharing Among Stakeholders

Figure 4 presents a network visualization of stakeholders in hotel food waste management. Node size indicates degree centrality (the level of connectedness), with larger circles indicating stakeholders that hold high influence/degree centrality (more direct connections). The network analysis revealed differentiated structures of stakeholder engagement in hotel food waste management, where central actors included hotels/managers, ZEMA, ZCT, local government, and customers/tourists due to their multiple, frequent, and influential connections across the network. Semi-central actors included suppliers, Green Composting LTD., waste companies, farmers, tour operators, and international booking platforms, such as TUI and Booking.com. These actors played important bridging or supportive roles, shaping upstream food supply, enabling circular economy practices, or influencing demand, but were less embedded than the central stakeholders, while peripheral stakeholders such as universities, research departments, environmental consultants, NGOs/ZAYEDESA, community members, charity schools, financial institutions, and green key were engaged in limited or indirect ways, through knowledge provision, certification, advocacy, or social support functions. Edge thickness reflects the relative strength of stakeholder relationships/interaction, as reported by respondents, where thicker lines indicate stronger, more frequent engagement and significant operational collaborations (e.g., hotels and waste companies, hotels and customers, hotels and regulators, or local government and waste companies), and thinner lines indicate weaker or less frequent ties (e.g., hotels and charity schools, and hotels and environmental consultants). This distribution indicates the centrality of hotels as the hub of the network, while also underscoring the role of semi-central bridging actors in connecting business, community, and regulatory networks. The figure illustrates the structural positions and relational dynamics of stakeholders within the network and complements the conceptual framework inspired by Remmen and Holgaard (2004) by adding quantitative dimensions to stakeholder engagement dynamics. According to this social network model, there was limited interaction between different sets of stakeholders, and regular communication was minimal (Figure 3). When asked about the level of coordination and frequency of contact between them, one of the hoteliers commented the following: “We usually do not meet”. This sentence reflects the lack of coordinated forums or consistent interaction between hotels and other sectoral stakeholders. Limited contact undermines the flow of information and weakens opportunities for collective approaches to waste management, which relates to the theme of “Social network structures and dynamics”. During a workshop, the people of the community were also asked about their interaction with hoteliers and if there was any relationship. Group 1 members reported during the workshop that “we lack the meetings between us villagers and hoteliers” and group 1, 2 and 4 suggested on collaboration between them as one of the strategies to combat the waste problem, adding that “the actions can be taken through our environmental committee” (Respondent from group 2). The interviews revealed that the stakeholders tend to work in silos. Similarly,

Table A2. Relative categorization of stakeholder groups across key network metrics to complement the conceptual framework (inspired by Remmen & Holgaard, 2004).

Stakeholder Groups	Degree Centrality	Betweenness Centrality	Network Density	Interpretation
Tourist Hotels/Hotel Managers	high	moderate	strong	Central actors with multiple direct ties; strongly connected to daily operations
ZEMA	moderate	high	moderate	Key regulator enforcing compliance and oversight: bridges between policy and regulatory frameworks across multiple stakeholder groups; fewer direct ties compared to hotels and local government.
ZCT	moderate	moderate	moderate	Provides standards and industry guidance, fostering compliance and cohesion
Local government	high	high	strong	Act as systemic brokers linking hotels, waste companies, communities, and regulatory frameworks
NGOs/ZAYEDESA	moderate	moderate	moderate	Peripheral actors but can bridge social or environmental concern if properly engaged
Tourism organizations	moderate	moderate	weak	Facilitate collaborations but less connected compared to hotel managers and government.
Suppliers	moderate	low	moderate	Direct tied to hotels, less role in bridging but crucial for operational inputs
Universities/research departments	low	low	weak	Peripheral knowledge actors with indirect or occasional engagement but contribute to evidence, innovation and capacity building
Waste-collection companies	moderate	moderate	strong	Hold strong operational ties with hotels and compliance links with regulators, contribute to network cohesion by ensuring continuity of waste flow
Community members	moderate	low	moderate	Engage in awareness and benefit from waste diversion; influence through collective pressure

shows the categorization of stakeholders into high, moderate, or low across degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and density based on their relative positions, roles, and functions within the hotel food waste management network. Hotel/hotel managers and local government were assigned a high degree of centrality due to their multiple direct operational ties, while regulatory bodies, such as ZEMA and ZCT, hold high betweenness centrality because of their bridging roles between policy frameworks and industry actors. Local government and NGOs are considered strong and moderate brokers, respectively, linking formal institutions with community or sectoral interests. Universities and research institutes, although categorized as having a low degree of centrality due to fewer direct connections, contribute indirectly through knowledge transfer and innovation. These classifications are qualitative and context-specific, intended to illustrate relative stakeholder influence and cohesion.

In addition, it is evident that communication is lacking among key stakeholders. The findings also indicated that there are no coordinated platforms or structured forums for communication, information sharing, and decision-making among stakeholders regarding waste management in the tourist hotel industry in Zanzibar in general: “Our role is to facilitate needs; the rest is a government decision and no involvement of stakeholders for investments” (respondent from ZEMA). Discussions with various stakeholders revealed limited contact among the stakeholders. Stakeholders who are directly involved in waste management at hotels, such as district councils and private waste companies, met, although not regularly. Other stakeholders, especially between government entities and private organizations, had no significant interactions among them. Private entities had limited participation in issues related to waste management. District councils and ZEMA had a better understanding of the issues within the solid waste management system, unlike private sector stakeholders, who had limited knowledge and information and did not communicate regarding this issue.

Many stakeholders expressed the need for increased information sharing across different hierarchical levels and sectors. District councils were eager to share the issues of waste management with the higher authorities, such as ZEMA and ZIPA, who have comparatively higher power. In addition, social media could be an essential channel for sharing knowledge on food waste among the general public, though motivation regarding this was low for many stakeholders who were interviewed. The lack of these platforms and channels is a missed opportunity for sharing knowledge among the different stakeholders.

The study’s findings also highlighted the unfair treatment of hoteliers by waste management companies. Some hotels do their best to reduce waste generation, but private waste-collection companies continue to charge flat rates, regardless of the significant decrease in the collected waste. Hence, the hoteliers do not benefit.

3.4. Relationship Between Community and Hotels

The study has investigated how communities perceive waste management by the hotels and whether any relationship exists between hotels and the communities. Responses from the workshop revealed that all groups agreed that “some hotels are doing well with respect to their waste management”. One group commented that “in general the waste management is not good but there are some hotels, especially the big ones that are doing good. These hotels have hired special people to handle the waste, and they are connected to big waste companies such as ZANREC.”

The workshop participants maintained that there is no formal arrangement or agreement that exist regarding the relationship between the hotels and community, as one of the participant from group 1 said “we don’t have any formal agreement with hotels in relation to waste management” During the workshop, no examples of engagement in relation to waste management could be found, but usually local leaders (shehas) are engaged by hoteliers when there are social issues, such as social disputes or other corporate social responsibility activities, which demand a donation from hotels, such as water services to the villages. The above quote illustrates the informal and ad hoc nature of community–hotel relationships, which highlights the limited scope of community engagement and the reactive character of hotels’ interaction with local stakeholders. The absence of formalized agreements between hotels and communities suggests a structural barrier to collaboration, and without clear frameworks or consistent mechanisms for participation, communities remain marginal to decision-making in hotel waste management practices, which is reflected in the theme of “Barriers and challenges to effective engagement” In addition, the Kendwa community was engaged in cleaning the beach and areas outside the hotels’ gates under the operation of ZANREC. Cleaners outside the hotels were women, and they were paid by this waste company. In addition, ZURI Hotel in Kendwa initiated a plastic waste management program in collaboration with community members, especially women and school children. The aim of this program was to reduce litter in the surrounding communities. This would be attractive for tourists, as waste is always a major concern raised by tourists (guests suggest a tip box in hotels). The hotel manager commented that “We usually use one day at the end of the month for this program. We send our staff from the hotel to clean the environment together with the people from the community. It seems people become interested because now many community members get involved”.

Community workshop participants emphasized the importance of creating stronger and more structured platforms for joint action. One participant suggested that “there is a need for strengthening the existing collaboration between villagers and hotels e.g., environmental and health committee”. They proposed a tripartite collaboration between hotels, villages, and the government. Participants further proposed the establishment of structures and working instruments for reducing waste by stating the following: “There should be environment committees, unions (jumuiya) and establishments of small regulations and laws for anyone who goes against the environmental cleanliness”. This demonstrates how communities consider formal structures and clear rules as crucial enablers of effective collaboration. Establishing committees, unions, or local by-laws would not only institutionalize cooperation but also provide mechanisms for accountability, thereby creating opportunities for more sustainable and inclusive engagement across stakeholders.

3.5. Relationship Between Food Suppliers and Hotels

Hoteliers use suppliers for different food products, such as fruits and vegetables, fish, meat, poultry, dairy products, cereals, and dry goods. Hotels can source goods and services from local suppliers to support the local economy and reduce costs. However, interviews with hotel managers indicated limited interactions with local suppliers, except for the fish markets along the coast. It was noted that the big hotels engage food suppliers from Zanzibar town, while many small hotels purchase the ingredients directly from shops, supermarkets, and markets in town. This is largely to avoid the stringent procedures regarding tax payment through the Virtual Fiscal Device (VFD) system recently introduced by the Zanzibar Revenue Authority (ZRA). It was highlighted by managers during their interviews that they refrain from buying goods at local stores because the stores do not have the VFD, and nowadays, all receipts are required to be issued in an electronic format through the VFD system.

4. Discussion and Recommendations

4.1. The Power Dynamics of Influencing Change

Food waste is a multifaceted issue that needs collaboration from multiple stakeholders, such as the government, community, private sector, researchers, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (Caniato et al., 2015). To be successful, the stakeholders should be engaged at all stages, including planning, implementation, and monitoring of how the food waste management is structured and functioning (dos Muchangos et al., 2017).

However, the result of the stakeholder analysis indicated a lack of coordination, with limited linkages among stakeholders. Generally, the waste governance structure in Zanzibar lies at the local government level. For many private stakeholders, food waste generation and management did not appear to be considered as an interesting aspect of tourism. These findings raise important questions about why collaboration remains limited despite apparent interests expressed by many stakeholders, which can be further explained through the lens of collective action theory. Effective food waste reduction in hotels requires cooperation among multiple actors whose incentives are not aligned. The limited collaboration observed between diverse actors, such as hotels, communities, and regulatory bodies, suggests a collective action problem, in which individual actors prioritize immediate economic or reputational gains over long-term sustainability goals. Results indicated that community stakeholders were proactive in redistribution initiatives, yet hotels were not practicing them. Although several hotels expressed willingness to redistribute surplus food under formal arrangements with communities, the results also show a reluctance to translate this willingness into practice. From a collective action theory perspective, this reflects the coordination dilemma, where actors recognize potential benefits but hesitate to commit due to concerns over costs, risks, or unequal contributions (Olson, 1965). In this case, hotels often preferred to wait for others to take the lead, creating a free-rider problem that undermines collective efforts. Such dynamics resonate with (Ostrom, 1990)’s argument that sustained collaboration requires institutional mechanisms, trust, and shared norms to overcome reluctance and ensure fair participation. The prominent role of regulatory agencies and NGOs in coordinating waste management further illustrates how external enforcement and facilitation are often necessary to overcome coordination failure. By framing these dynamics through collective action theory, the study underscores the structural challenges that constrain stakeholder engagement in hotel food waste management and highlights the importance of building trust, incentives, and shared responsibilities for more effective collaborations.

This was consistent with the findings from (Le et al., 2018), who reported that coordination among stakeholders was predominantly at government hierarchical levels, with no horizontal cooperation between sectors, and participation of private enterprises was limited.

Stakeholders, directly connected to and involved in waste management, were much more aware of the system than others, such as district councils. However, this was not the case with respect to power. For example, the district councils expressed no power, although, according to bylaws, these councils have legislative power to control and coordinate issues within their jurisdictions. District councils consider hotel operation as a business that is controlled under terms and conditions regulated by the Zanzibar Investment and Promotion Authority (ZIPA). This mismatch between formal mandate and perceived authority reflects systemic issues in governance, i.e., decentralization without actual empowerment. Such structural disconnections may limit innovation or enforcement at the local level, especially when private stakeholders prioritize regulatory bodies like ZIPA over local councils. This dynamic suggests that legal authority alone does not translate to influence unless it is backed by legitimacy and recognition from other actors in the system. This was also demonstrated in a study of stakeholder collaborations in the management of municipal solid waste in Monrovia, Liberia (Slehkie & Dongjie, 2021), in which it was reported that some stakeholders were active and understood the system well, but claimed to have little power in governing the system.

4.2. Enhancing Collaboration and Network

Leadership and communication are key to successful stakeholder collaboration (Koiwanit & Filimonau, 2023), and defining and accepting roles and responsibilities among stakeholders are crucial for effective collaborative work toward solid waste minimization. The stakeholders usually learn from each other in partnerships, and their collaboration builds trust, making them flexible to work on the same vision, which could result in an improvement of services (Ali & Haapasalo, 2023; Kandanaarachchi et al., 2022). The contracted private waste companies are working with practical waste management, i.e., collecting and transporting the waste to dumpsites. They do not engage meaningfully in the downstream of food waste management, where alternatives to disposal need to be promoted. The waste companies could expand their business model by promoting composting, hence benefiting hotels, while at the same time generating an income. Thus, there could be political, mandatory requirements on food waste separation and composting for these stakeholders.

The district councils are connected and related to waste companies, local communities, and NGOs in terms of waste management services. These governance authorities (North and South District Councils) can promote good practices for food waste in the local community because they have close contact with the communities through their leaders (Shehas). Stakeholder interaction is increasingly recognized as an essential component of sustainable business (Fobbe & Hilletofth, 2021); therefore, hoteliers can also increase collaboration and relationships with the communities by shifting from a throw-away culture and implementing reduce, reuse, and recycling practices. However, such a shift requires more than goodwill and includes institutional incentives, reputational benefits, or pressure from certified bodies to encourage behavioral changes. The throw-away culture reflects assumptions about the role of tourism in local economies as a sector often operating in silos, disconnected from local sustainability imperatives. This relation network concurs with the stakeholder analysis that the stronger the interest and influence of stakeholders in the power/interest grid (Figure 1, area D), the higher the relation networking (Le et al., 2018). In other words, strengthening networks can increase a stakeholder’s influence, especially if they have a high interest.

Community engagement results in changes in practice for hotels and downstream social sustainability through food donations and animal feedings in the community as a way to gain more value from the food waste resources and address environmental challenges. Donations, including food, were one of the hotel community-based social responsibility activities mentioned in the study conducted by (Kasim et al., 2022) that also emphasized the importance of engaging the host community. Collaboration between the community and hoteliers can be enriched if the current practices are rethought. Consideration of systematic reduction in food waste in hotels will demand hoteliers to engage more with the adjacent communities. This was also supported by (Koiwanit & Filimonau, 2023), indicating that geographical proximity results in a positive effect on social capital and trust between stakeholders in relation to partnership. This mutually beneficial relationship between hotels and adjacent communities could result in a strengthened network, which was also supported by the idea that the stakeholders’ network is a small-world network that encouraged additional participation, efficient information diffusion, and cooperation on tourism waste management (X. Xu et al., 2024). This is, furthermore, supported by (Surucu-Balci & Tuna, 2022), who stated that collaboration between stakeholders helps to tackle food loss and waste, but it is essential to identify stakeholders based on their salience level, which has more impact on diminishing food loss and waste in the food supply chain. For example, this study reported that households were among the salient stakeholders of the consumption stage (possessing legitimacy, urgency, and power), who play a substantial role in reducing food waste and loss in the food supply chain.

4.3. New Network Practices

Effective networking among stakeholders depends on knowledge, level of awareness, perception of the stakeholders, and information sharing (Slehkie & Dongjie, 2021; Le et al., 2018; X. Xu et al., 2024). However, few examples were found of communication and information sharing among the stakeholders. Stakeholders did not have a shared vision regarding food waste management. However, as part of Zanzibar’s Sustainable Tourism Declaration, 156 organizations have pledged to it, and food waste is one of the areas emphasized for improved practices. Social networks may engage stakeholders more effectively in regard to enforcing environmental regulations than formal government structures (Caniato et al., 2015). However, the findings revealed that the use of these social networks and platforms for the purpose of waste management practices does not exist in the area. This suggests a gap in digital literacy, strategic communication planning, and stakeholders’ motivation. In many cases, stakeholders may lack the institutional incentives, capacity, or trust to engage in online knowledge-sharing or public awareness campaigns. In addition, environmental messaging may not yet be perceived as a reputational asset within Zanzibar’s tourism branding. Therefore, social media, despite global trends in sustainability communication, remains an underexploited tool for fostering environmental awareness, encouraging sustainable behavior, and strengthening accountability among stakeholders and the general public.

The stakeholder network, with international tour operators, could be strengthened through ZCT, which is the authority with the necessary power in the tourism sector in Zanzibar. This could contribute to hotels aligning with a certification system that stimulates environmentally friendly practices, such as the Green Key. For example, a potential pressure for a change in practices comes through booking.com, where 80% of its travelers showed interest in reducing the impact on the environment, and about 669 hotels in Zanzibar are part of its booking system (Booking.com, n.d.). However, instead of developing its certification scheme, ZCT should promote and apply international environmental standards, such as the Green Key. The absence of clear enforcement and incentive mechanisms for adoption contributes to a challenge to the voluntary nature of sustainability commitments in the sector. Institutional hesitancy to enforce certification may stem from fears of discouraging investment, lack of technical support for hotels, or weak alignment between tourism promotion and environmental regulations. This gap underscores the need for coordinated policy and capacity-building measures that embed sustainability certification not as an add-on, but as a core part of tourism development strategy. Likewise, the current Sustainable Tourism Declaration (Zanzibar Commission for Tourism, 2023) could be a crucial platform to enhance relationships and network among stakeholders and further support the shift in focus from the COVID-19 pandemic towards sustainable waste management solutions for the sector.

Similarly, tourism organizations, such as ZATI and HAZ, could be potential agents to catalyze sustainable changes in the industry through a certification system. These are the bridge between the government and hotels, and, therefore, a certification system, such as compliance with the Green Key, could be set as a requirement for membership. Many hotels in Zanzibar are members of ZATI; for example, out of ten hotels under study, seven are ZATI members. This is also supported by (Khatter et al., 2021), emphasizing that hotel associations are important stakeholders of the hotel industry who can assist the hotel in contributing to environmental sustainability by framing certification programs based on the needs of the industry.

Based on discussions with the executive secretary of ZCT, the implementation of sustainable tourism in Zanzibar is of paramount importance. The knowledge requirement was also emphasized in the study by (Lederer et al., 2015) in Busia, Uganda, reporting that all forms of knowledge, including explicit knowledge, knowledge exchange, and tacit knowledge, are required by all relevant stakeholders in order to ensure the success of solid waste management plans and interventions. Furthermore, mandatory certification schemes, such as the Green Key, are platforms for improving environmental performance and for moving beyond voluntary schemes in the hospitality industry. The Ministry of Tourism has recently proposed Zanzibar’s Sustainable Tourism Certification Roadmap to facilitate a process with the aim of establishing third-party sustainability certification for at least 20% of Zanzibar’s accommodations and tour operators by 2030 (Ministry of Tourism and Heritage, 2025, unpublished report). The Ministry of Tourism and Heritage and ZCT have made an official announcement and embedded a target into their policies and activities: to form a partnership with selected third-party certification bodies and to develop a strategy to support and incentivize accommodation providers and tour operators to adopt endorsed third-party certification over the next five years.

This aligns with the Sustainable Tourism Declaration, which commits to sustainable waste management, sustainable food use, and reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and climate change impact, among other thematic areas (Zanzibar Commission for Tourism, 2023). The ZCT, as part of the Zanzibar Declaration, is spearheading the Greener Zanzibar campaign and is tackling one of the priority areas by making sustainable waste management practices mandatory as of July 2025 for all hotels in Zanzibar (Public notice: Zanzibar Commission for Tourism; December, 2024). An eco-label can improve the image of hotels and enhance brand reputation in the international tourism market. The plan to make Zanzibar an eco-friendly destination should be given high priority, with the potential of attracting more tourism and enhancing income generation for the local communities while committing to global sustainability efforts.

4.4. Knowledge Sharing

The State University of Zanzibar can be a catalyst for social changes, as its knowledge network group of researchers is now shifting from baseline to intervention studies in the communities to create more impact, e.g., on sustainable SWM. New teaching and learning materials should be developed and are expected to be integrated into primary school curricula, targeting kids as agents for change in the future. This was emphasized by (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2017), stating that educational institutions, such as schools, could play a role in influencing social behavior. Researchers can, furthermore, be key agents for acting on learning and sharing knowledge when the focus is, for example, on strengthening the prevention of food waste. This is consistent with the study by (Matzembacher et al., 2021), who support research and the generation of new knowledge in analyzing multi-stakeholder initiatives to reduce food loss and waste. They argue that research can result in effective management actions and public policies aimed at reducing food loss and waste in the country. While education and research institutions hold potential as change agents, their influence depends on integration into the policy process and continuous engagement with other stakeholders. Fragmented research initiatives or short-term pilot projects may not result in long-lasting behavioral change unless they are institutionalized into policy, curricula, or certification frameworks.

4.5. Conflicts Among Stakeholders

Conflicts were observed between waste companies that benefit from collection revenue and the hoteliers. Conflicts were experienced because different stakeholders have different interests in the waste strategies to reduce, reuse, and recycle waste. This points out contradictions between economic incentives and sustainability goals. For instance, waste companies often profit from volume-based collection models, which disincentives them from supporting waste reduction at the source. Therefore, this highlights the need for restructuring these economic models, for example, by introducing performance-based payments or composting credits to achieve sustainable collaborations. In line with this, it was reported by (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2017) that waste companies do not show interest in food waste prevention initiatives unless they are pushed by stakeholders with power, like local authorities, to cooperate on the implementation. Similarly, conflicts between stakeholders were explained by Haddaway et al. (2017) as one of the key challenges for the engagement of stakeholders and, therefore, need to be resolved carefully.

4.6. Practical Implications

This study introduces a context-specific model to make sense of relationships and engagement dynamics among diverse stakeholder groups in food waste management at tourist hotels. The model contributes methodologically by adapting stakeholder analysis to the scale of small-island hotel networks, where interactions are more fluid, resource-constrained, and geographically bound. The study contributes to the theoretical discourse on stakeholder dynamics by analyzing specific strategies that foster stronger partnerships and enhance interactions. It also expands the knowledge on understanding the role of multi-stakeholder collaboration in operationalizing stakeholder synergy, towards coordinated and improved initiatives for food waste management to promote sustainability. Moreover, it offers actionable recommendations for practitioners and decision-makers seeking to enhance collaborative outcomes. Therefore, multi-stakeholder collaboration, grounded in mutual accountability, trust, and local knowledge-sharing networks, can be considered as a strategic approach and a vehicle for the implementation of food waste interventions. For example, establishing a multi-stakeholder task force at the local or regional level can ensure regular dialog, shared accountability, and trust-building, as well as coordinated actions to reduce food waste. Similarly, it highlights the need for the development of a communication strategy for digital platforms to promote transparency and knowledge sharing on food waste data, best practices, and social innovation among stakeholders and across sectors.

4.7. Study Limitations

The study acknowledges some limitations, including that empirical data collection relied on self-reported information from interviews and workshops, which may introduce bias in the participants’ responses. The use of a qualitative study design allowed for an in-depth understanding of the dynamics and complex interactions among people and institutions; however, it limits the statistical generalizability of the research findings in a broader hospitality sector. Stakeholder arrangements and institutional contexts may differ across tourist destinations; future applications of the findings need to consider local specificity. Nevertheless, the study is particularly relevant to other islands and tourism-dependent settings where food waste management involves complex, multi-sector collaboration.

4.8. Future Research

The study is context-specific, focusing on Zanzibar during a period when the COVID-19 pandemic constrained hotel operations and limited direct engagement with some actors. Hence, the findings may not fully capture the diversity of stakeholder interactions in other tourism destinations. Therefore, future research could build on this work by conducting comparative studies across different islands and tourism destination contexts to examine collective action challenges. This will strengthen the external validity of the proposed model and provide a broader basis for policy recommendations.

5. Conclusions

The study aimed at mapping and analyzing stakeholders to understand the dynamics of their engagement and interactions in the context of food waste management in tourist hotels to achieve sustainability goals. The study proposed a small-scale stakeholder systems model by mapping and categorizing stakeholders into tailored network types, such as business or knowledge networks, to facilitate understanding of their roles, interests, power, engagement goals, and communication flows. The findings have indicated a lack of coordination, limited communication, and information sharing among the stakeholders. The interest, power, and knowledge of stakeholders are factors that affect their motivation to take on their roles and responsibilities, especially when it comes to participating in food waste management programs, such as the redistribution of surplus food and recycling.

Many stakeholders with high interest, such as Green Composting LTD, do not have sufficient power to influence any changes in the current take-make-disposal system. The local government has the main responsibility for solid waste management, including food waste, but has not set up any requirements for hotels and waste management companies with regard to sustainability. So far, private waste management companies are collecting food waste from hotels and transporting it to dumpsites, which adds to the problem of mixed waste at the site. Therefore, they need to be provided with incentives, such as the provision of space for composting and for making separation a necessary requirement for hoteliers before final disposal of non-recyclable residuals at a landfill.

Decision-making processes are characterized by complex interactions between different actors and sectors. Therefore, building social interactions among upstream and downstream stakeholders will enhance their engagement in the practical implementation of the initiated program and significantly impact system functioning. Small-scale stakeholder interactions, such as business or knowledge networks, are effective in building collaborative relationships and partnerships towards sustainable food waste management initiatives in the sector. Information and knowledge sharing are key to building such a network. In addition, the network between stakeholders, such as researchers and decision-makers, can become a bridge to share knowledge and information that could influence policy changes and practices downstream.

Community engagement and understanding the mechanism of extending interactions between hoteliers and communities are essential steps towards the success of grassroots initiatives. Community members can be potential agents for improvement while promoting income generation and supporting their livelihood through waste reduction and recovery programs. These options are preferred in the food waste management hierarchy over disposal in a landfill. Similarly, increased interactions and communication between management and hotel staff can enhance the implementation of prevention and waste reduction programs at hotels. This can help the staff develop their sense of duty and commitment in their daily routines and responsibilities.

In conclusion, effective engagement and interactions of stakeholders result in positive effects on social processes, such as inclusive decision-making, building trust and collaboration, accountability, and institutional relationships, which also lead to the improvement of environmental and economic outcomes. Moreover, the study offers practical insights that can guide practitioners or policymakers in forming effective collaborations or interventions.