Fathers at the Centre: Exploring the Roles of Fathers in Caring for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Limpopo Province, South Africa

Abstract

Fathers play a vital role in caring for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Fathers of children with ASD today have moved far beyond the “occasional helper” role. They are deeply involved in daily caregiving routines, supporting their families financially and emotionally. The involvement of the father in raising a child with ASD reduces stress levels for both parents and strengthens family ties. The study explored and described the roles that fathers play in the care of children with ASD. A qualitative, explorative, descriptive, and contextual research design was used to gain a detailed understanding of the role’s fathers play in the care of children with ASD. Non-probability purposive sampling was used to recruit 15 fathers of children with ASD. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analysed using Tesch’s eight data analysis steps. The findings revealed that fathers play a variety of roles in the care of their children with ASD. These include participating in meeting the needs of their children with ASD, protecting them from harm, promoting their emotional well-being, and supporting the overall operation of the family. The experiences of fathers in this study also reflect the difficulties of raising a child with ASD, such as financial expenses, safety concerns, and community stigma. It is necessary to create father-inclusive guidelines in maternal and child health services formally to integrate fathers into every aspect of children’s care, switching from a mother-centred approach to a family-centred one. As a result, fathers will routinely participate in the consultation, decision making, and treatment of their children with ASD.

1. Introduction

Autism is a complex lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by impaired social interaction and communication and repetitive, restricted patterns of behaviours, activities and interest [1].

Fathers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) play a critical emotional support role by providing psychological stability, reassurance, and resilience within the family. Research shows that fathers often experience intense emotional responses such as shock, grief, anxiety, and guilt after their child’s diagnosis, but many adapt by becoming key emotional anchors for both the child and the family [2,3]. Despite emotional stress, fathers contribute to buffering maternal stress and improving overall family functioning through shared coping and emotional support [4]. Studies also indicate that increased paternal emotional involvement is associated with improved family adjustment and reduced caregiver burnout among mothers of children with ASD [5]. In the Limpopo context, fathers can also serve as stabilising figures in households with limited access to specialised services, thus strengthening emotional resilience in resource-constrained environments.

Globally, the prevalence of ASD has increased, particularly in China, Japan, the United States, and Europe. In England, the latest estimate is 1% of the population [6]. Furthermore, ASD has been reported to affect 1.15 percent of children in Italy between the ages of 7 and 9, 0.4 to 2.9% in Arab countries, and 3.9% in Asia [7]. According to data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 1 in 54 children in the US now have ASD. However, the prevalence of ASD in African countries is yet unknown [8]. However, epidemiological data show that ASD has become more common in the last 20 years. It is still uncertain and underreported how common ASD is in South Africa, as well as in the Limpopo province [9].

Fathers also contribute significantly to the practical and daily care of children with ASD, including feeding, supervision, transportation, and helping with routines. International evidence shows that fathers are increasingly taking shared responsibility for daily care tasks, with some reporting equal or primary caregiving roles depending on family structure and employment demands [10]. Practical involvement is particularly important in the care of ASD due to the need for structured routines, consistency, and behavioural support in daily activities [2]. Fathers also help to manage behavioural challenges and facilitate participation in household and community activities, which supports child independence and adaptive functioning [10]. In rural settings in South Africa, such as Limpopo, where mothers often carry disproportionate caregiving burdens, paternal involvement in daily care can significantly reduce caregiver strain and improve continuity of child support continuity [11].

A key role for fathers in caring for children with ASD is financial provision and resource mobilisation, which is essential to access healthcare, therapy, and educational support. The literature indicates that fathers often prioritise employment and income generation to meet the high financial demands associated with ASD interventions, including therapy costs and transportation to specialised services [12]. However, this caregiver role can create tension between work responsibilities and active caregiver participation, leading to emotional stress and role strain [2]. Studies also show that financial stability is strongly related to improved access to early intervention services and better developmental outcomes for children with ASD [4]. In Limpopo Province, where socioeconomic disparities and limited access to specialised ASD services are common, fathers’ financial contributions are often essential to maintaining long-term care pathways for their children.

Fathers also play an important advocacy and intervention support role by engaging with healthcare providers, educational systems, and community structures to provide services to their children. Evidence suggests that father involvement in early intervention programmes improves child communication, social interaction, and symbolic play outcomes, particularly when fathers are actively involved in therapy and training activities [2,4,13]. Additionally, fathers contribute unique interaction styles, such as structured play and problem-solving approaches, which enhance development progress in children with ASD [2]. However, research also highlights that fathers are often underrepresented in intervention programs and support services, despite their potential contribution to positive child outcomes [14]. In the Limpopo context, fathers can also act as advocates for navigating healthcare systems, schools, and disability support services, although their involvement is often shaped by cultural expectations and limited accessibility to services.

Limited research is focused specifically on the roles of fathers in the care of children with ASD, particularly in rural settings such as Limpopo Province, South Africa. Existing studies tend to emphasise the experiences, needs, and challenges of mothers as primary caregivers, limited to fathers as a distinct group. Consequently, these studies provide insufficient evidence on how fathers participate in the care and support of a child with ASD. Fathers are often underrepresented or viewed as financial providers rather than active participants in caregiving. Therefore, this study is necessary to address these gaps by exploring father caregiving roles and experiences and to inform more inclusive, family-centred support interventions and policies.

1.1. Object of Study

This study aimed to explore and describe the lived experiences of fathers regarding their role in caring for children with ASD in Limpopo Province, South Africa.

1.2. Theoretical Framework

The study was guided by John Bowlby & Mary Ainsworth (2013) [15] attachment theory. The theory was initially developed by Bowlby and subsequently expanded by Mary Ainsworth in 1987. Ainsworth’s work places an emphasis on the role of the caregiver in shaping attachment. According to the work of Ainsworth, the caregiver must be observant, consistent, and responsive to interpret and respond to the child’s needs [16]. Bowlby conceptualises the caregiver as a “secure base,” fostering the psychological safety, behaviour, and social development necessary for a child to investigate their environment [15]. Attachment theory posits that children develop an emotional bond and fundamental connection with caregivers or parents that is available, supportive, and protective. This theory consists of four styles, namely, secure, anxious–preoccupied, dismissive–avoidant, and fearful–avoidant.

In the secure style, children grow up trusting others because their caregivers were reliable. They feel good about themselves and find it easy to be close to people while remaining independent. In the anxious–occupied style, they often worry about being left behind because their caregivers were only sometimes there for them. They have a strong need to be close to others and are very sensitive to the feelings of their parents. In the dismissive–avoidant style, they learn to rely only on themselves because their caregivers were emotionally distant. They tend to hide their feelings and run away if someone gets too close. In the fearful–avoidant style, because of difficult or scary past experiences, they feel conflicted. They want to be close to others, but they are afraid of being hurt.

For the present study, the secure style or the secure base concept was more relevant. The study explored the roles that fathers play in the care of children with ASD, including caregiver, protector, provider, emotional support, participation in health care, play, and decision making. The secure base concept represents a theoretical interpretation of fathers’ reported availability, responsiveness, consistence, and protective behaviour rather than evidence that paternal involvement resulted in secure attachment. The attachment theory was used as a theoretical framework for interpretation of the findings; attachment security was not directly assessed in his study.

In this study, fathers will be framed as a critical “secure base” for children with ASD. Fathers who provide consistent care and protection to their children help the child feel safe, reducing the child’s anxiety and strengthening the attachment bond. The study used attachment theory as a theoretical lens, not as a tool to diagnose the category of attachment style of fathers who participated in this study. The theory provided the framework for interpreting how fathers’ reported experiences of caregiving, protection, and emotional support contribute to the sense of safety of the child and the relationship between the father and the child. However, the cultural beliefs, family structures, and socioeconomic conditions of the rural areas of the Limpopo province could have an impact on how these roles are experienced. While acknowledging that these roles are embedded in the cultural and socioeconomic realities of the province of Limpopo, exploring father involvement through the lens of attachment theory offers a chance to comprehend how father involvement contributes to father–child relationships or secure bases.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Research Design

To gain a detailed understanding of the roles that fathers play in caring for children with ASD, this study used a qualitative, descriptive, explorative, and contextual research design. The qualitative approach was considered appropriate, because it captured the experiences, perceptions, practices, and meaning attached to their caregiving roles in their own words. The exploratory design allowed the researcher to capture rich and lived experiences of the role fathers play in caring for children with ASD in the deep rural areas of Limpopo Province. The descriptive design facilitated an in-depth description of the roles of the father. The contextual design enabled the researcher to understand the experiences of fathers within the cultural and socioeconomical circumstances in the deep rural areas of the Limpopo province.

2.2. Settings

The research was carried out at the selected special school in the Capricon district of Limpopo Province, South Africa. Limpopo Province is one of the deep rural areas in South Africa with only two special schools that provide dedicated educational services to children with ASD. The selected special school in Limpopo Province that accommodates the highest population of learners diagnosed with ASD and comprises four classrooms exclusively dedicated to learners with ASD. Each classroom accommodates 12 to 13 learners with ASD. The second school has only one ASD classroom with fewer than 10 learners. Consequently, selected special schools enrol children with ASD from across the Limpopo province. Thus, we serve a geographically diverse population rather than a single local community. The selected school provided a larger pool of potential participants, making it the most appropriate setting for the study. The special school was selected as the only recruitment site because it provided the opportunity to recruit fathers of children with ASD who met the inclusion criteria. Although recruiting participants from one special school can introduce selection bias and limit the transferability of the findings, the selected school receives children with ASD from all districts of the Limpopo province, providing access to fathers from a diverse socioeconomic and geographical background.

2.3. Sampling of Participants

There were 37 learners with ASD with fathers in the chosen school. The researcher used a nonprobability objective selection strategy to recruit and choose 15 fathers of children with ASD. The final sample was determined by the depth and richness of the interviews and achieved by data saturation, rather than a numerical threshold. This approach was supported by qualitative researchers, who demonstrated that a qualitative study sample should be determined by data saturation and meaning saturation [17]. One father was a foster parent for a child with ASD, and fourteen men were the biological fathers of children with ASD. They were between the ages of 34 and 63. Twelve were employed, two were self-employed, and one was a pensioner. Ten fathers were married, two were unmarried, one was engaged, one was widowed, and one was divorced. The participants were from the five districts of the Limpopo province. The selected fathers were biological and foster fathers who assumed the primary fathering role in their child’s life, had a child who was officially diagnosed with ASD at the selected special school, had been actively involved in the care of the child since their diagnosis, lived in one of the Limpopo districts, and were willing and able to give consent and participate in semi-structured interviews. This study excluded fathers who were unable to participate in interviews due to communication or any other problem, who were unwilling to participate, who were not actively involved in the care of their children with ASD, or who had children with an unconfirmed diagnosis of ASD.

Table 1. Characteristics of the participants.

Participant	Age	Marital Status	Employment Status	Relationship with the Child	Age of the ASD Child	Number of Children	Location
P1	63 years	Widow	Pensioner	Foster father	14 years	2	Mokomene
P2	35 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	6 years	1	Sekhokho
P3	46 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	7 years	4	Bochum
P4	41 years	Single	Unemployed	Biological father	15 years	1	Ga-Ramokgopa
P5	41 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	8 years	2	Lebowakgomo
P6	40 years	Engaged	Self-employed	Biological father	5 years	4	Lebowakgomo
P7	55 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	12 years	6	Kwena Moloto
P8	53 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	14 years	3	Mokopane
P9	41 years	Divorcee	Employed	Biological father	9 years	1	Polokwane
P10	47 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	7 years	2	Seshego
P11	40 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	9 years	3	Phalaborwa
P12	43 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	8 years	3	Mokopane
P13	45 years	Married	Employed	Biological father	12 years	2	Giyani
P14	45 years	Married	Self-employed	Biological father	9 years	1	Tzaneen
P15	34 years	Single	Employed	Biological father	8 years	4	Vuwani

summarises the characteristics of the participants.

2.4. Data Collection

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted by the researcher. Fifteen interviews were conducted, consisting of twelve face-to-face interviews and three semi-structured telephone interviews. The latter three interviews were conducted telephonically due to logistical constraints and scheduling difficulties which made face-to-face interviews impractical. The twelve face-to-face interviews were conducted in a private room after school to ensure privacy, facilitate clear audio recording, and minimise interruptions. Similarly, for the telephonic interviews, the researcher ensured that the location was quiet and that it was in a quiet private room. Participants were asked to sit quietly in a private room so that only the researcher and the participants could hear what was discussed during the interview.

The twelve face-to-face semi-structured interviews allowed direct interaction with the participants and also allowed the researcher to observe nonverbal cues, which was not possible with the telephonic interviews. However, the telephone interview may have encouraged greater openness by providing participants with privacy and comfort when discussing their experiences. During all interviews, the researcher created rapport, ensured confidentiality, and encouraged participants to describe their experiences freely and use probing questions to obtain more information. During data analysis, no notable difference was observed in the depth or quality of the data between the face-to-face and telephone interviews.

The interviews were recorded and field notes were taken to capture emotions and nonverbal cues. Most participants preferred to be interviewed in Sepedi. A brief interview guide with open-ended questions and probing prompts supported the discussions as follows:

• How do you usually interact with your child with autism?
• In what ways are you involved in caring for your child?
• What concerns do you have about your child’s safety?
• What role do you think a father should play in the life of a child with ASD?

Each interview lasted 40–45 min and was conducted between February and April 2024. Throughout the interviews, the researcher used techniques such as probing, summarising, and paraphrasing to facilitate rich and meaningful responses. The researcher is a registered nurse who has worked in one of the hospitals for more than 8 years. The researcher was trained for qualitative data collection by the supervisors. The researcher used bracketing to prevent the inclusion of preconceived ideas during data collection and analysis.

Data collection and analysis were performed concurrently. Data saturation was observed after the thirteenth interview; however, two additional interviews were conducted to confirm saturation. During data analysis, code saturation was reached when no new codes emerged from successive semi-structured interviews. Thematic saturation was reached when the two additional interviews failed to generate new themes.

2.5. Ethical Considerations

The ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Turfloop Research Ethics Committee of the University of Limpopo (protocol code: TREC/1691/2023: PG and date of approval 4 December 2023). The Department of Basic Education and the principal of the selected special school granted permission to conduct a study at the school.

Fathers of children with ASD were recruited during ASD awareness events in selected special schools. The researcher was invited by the school to an information session to facilitate the recruitment of potential participants. Each father agreed to participate in the study by signing a consent form, and a convenient date and time for data collection were established.

2.6. Data Analysis

Data were analysed using the thematic approach described by Creswell [18]. The first step was to transcribe the interviews verbatim and organise the data. The interviews were first transcribed in Sepedi before being translated into English because they were conducted in Sepedi. Transcription and translation were performed by trained bilingual research assistants fluent in Sepedi and English, and the translations were subsequently inspected for accuracy by the researchers. The English transcripts were translated into Sepedi by another bilingual individual who was not involved in the first translation. The original Sepedi transcripts were then compared with the back-translated version to identify the loss of meaning. A consensus meeting was held to discuss and resolve any discrepancy identified during this process by the researcher and the bilingual research assistance. The final English transcripts were checked by the researcher for accuracy before data analysis.

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the material and consider its overall significance, the researchers carefully reviewed all the data, including the transcriptions and field notes. A brief and engaging interview transcript was selected and read through, with emerging thoughts recorded in the margins. NVivo 12 was used to manage, organise and code the data. To develop an initial summary of the data, the researchers began with the shortest and most compelling transcripts. Throughout the process, they continued to ask “What is this about?” to uncover the underlying meaning within the data.

A list of every topic was created after reviewing the transcriptions; grouping related topics; and organising these topics into columns designated main, unique, and leftover topics. After reviewing the data, the list of topics was used to shorten the topics into codes, which were then written next to the relevant textual passages. The researchers did this to determine whether new codes or categories had been identified. To limit the number of categories, related topics were grouped together and then lines were drawn between the categories to illustrate their interrelationships. The codes were alphabetically organised, and the final abbreviation was determined for each group. Data from each category were compiled, and an initial analysis of the data was performed. Existing data were inspected according to themes and subthemes.

To validate the data, all researchers listened to the voice recordings and discussed the emerging themes that emerged. An independent coder provided the transcripts. Final themes and subthemes were decided upon during a meeting between the researchers and the independent coder.

2.7. Trustworthiness

In this study, trustworthiness was ensured by using four key components of trustworthiness, which are credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability [19]. In this study, credibility was ensured by using triangulation and prolonged engagement in the field. The researcher ensured credibility by interviewing each participant for 40–45 min, using observational skills, taking field notes, and recording all interview audio. The reliability was ensured by describing in detail the methodology used, the data collection method, and the study results. Confirmability was ensured by playing back each recorded interview to get the meaning of what the participants were saying and to ensure that what is written in the findings reflected what the participants said. At the end of each interview, the researcher summarised the interview and each participant confirmed that it was what they said. The researcher submitted all data collection sources, including audio tapes and field notes, to the supervisor for audit. Transferability was ensured by describing in detail the study setting, design used, sampling, procedures used to collect data, and data collected.

3. Results

This study explored the roles and involvement of fathers in the care of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Analysis of the interview data identified five main roles performed by fathers: caregiver, protector, provider, supporter, and manager. The findings indicate that fathers participated in multiple aspects of their children’s care and contributed to the functioning of their families through practical, emotional, financial, and protective support. The themes and quotations of the participants are presented below.

3.1. Caregiver Role

This study demonstrated that fathers of children with ASD serve as the primary caregivers of their children. The study found that fathers of children with ASD help their spouses in providing care for their children in daily tasks such as bathing, administering medication, and providing meals. Some fathers mentioned that they also go to the hospital with their children with ASD to see the therapists for a follow-up appointment. Furthermore, some fathers said that because they play with their children with ASD, they feel more at ease interacting with them. This suggests that fathers actively participate in providing care rather than viewing daily care tasks as exclusive to women. Furthermore, the findings indicate that there is marital and parental support because the fathers reported working together with their spouse. The findings also point to a positive relationship and strong bonding between fathers and children with ASD since the children with ASD are at ease with their fathers, which aligns with the secure attachment relationship. The involvement in the caregiving role and the relationship between fathers and their children with ASD will influence the future connection, impacting trust and intimacy in adulthood. According to attachment theory, a caregiver who is always available and responsive to the child’s needs serves as a secure foundation, as evidenced by the following:

“I help our child with everyday tasks such as showering him, ensuring that he eats and takes his medication, and making sure that we go to the hospital with him on the day of his check-up. We help each other with his mother to take care of him”.

(P5)

“I engage in activities with him, particularly when he is playing; I act like I am his age.” Even if he does something bad and sees his mother coming for him, he will run and hide behind my back, since he feels even more at ease around me. Therefore, he feels more secure when he is with me. Although he cannot express it, I play a significant role in his life, and I can see that he has a lot of faith in me. When his mother is not present, I stay with him at home and take care of him”.

(P6)

“I make sure that he sees a speech therapist.” I usually find time at work to go with him to the speech therapist. In addition, I give him his medication, wash him and make sure he eats”.

(P9)

3.2. Protective Roles

Children with ASD are constantly at risk of self-harm due to their behavioural problems. Consequently, the study findings showed that fathers are protective of their children with ASD by keeping anything dangerous away from them. Some fathers emphasised that they always protect their children with ASD by making sure they do not play near anything that could hurt them, and some even lock the gates to prevent them from leaving. Furthermore, some fathers stated that after realising that the community is not treating their children with ASD well, they do not allow their children with ASD to go out to play with others, while others choose who can play with their children with ASD.

The findings imply that fathers are aware of the risk of harm to their children with ASD and believe it is their responsibility to maintain their safety. Additionally, fathers control and manage the child’s social environment by deciding who their child should interact with in order to reduce potential bodily and psychological harm.

According to attachment theory, children are more likely to explore their surroundings and become closer to their caregiver when they feel safe around them. The fathers in this study provide attentive monitoring and empathetic response, which is critical when the child ventures out and explores their environment. These behaviours can be understood in relation to the concept of caregiving within the attachment framework as a secure base, where caregiver availability and responsiveness can provide the child with a sense of security while engaging with their environment. For children with ASD, whose social interaction and communication present challenges, caregiver involvement might provide support for everyday social experience and interaction. However, these findings should not be interpreted as evidence of secure attachment, as attachment security and outcomes were not directly evaluated in this study.

The above remarks are evidenced by the following:

“I remove all the dangerous objects near him so that he will not hurt himself or others when he gets angry just because he occasionally gets angry and throws things”.

(P5)

He gets mistreated by other children; you know how children are, and this bothers me. I now choose children who treat him better to play with him in order to protect him; other children will not let my child play with them because of how they treat him.

(P9)

“I constantly make sure he doesn’t play close to the walls or windows. I make sure there is nothing that could hurt him where he is playing”.

(P11)

3.3. Family Provider Roles

The findings provided details that fathers of children with ASD play the role of a family provider in families. Fathers of children in the study were found to provide for their children with ASD and their families financially. Children with ASD were reported to receive a social grant; however, fathers highlighted that social grants are not enough to cover all the costs of raising a child with ASD. The costs associated with caring for a child with ASD, as stated by parents, include school fees, school transport, food, clothes, school uniform, medical expenses, etc.

The findings suggest that the main source of financial support for children with ASD and their families comes from their fathers. Because they cover tuition, transportation, and medical bills as well as their basic needs, their contributions demonstrate a high level of accountability and dedication. The findings are consistent with the secure base relationship of attachment theory. Fathers contribute to the availability and consistency of care by ensuring that the fundamental needs of the child with ASD are met through the provision of financial resources. Although financial provision itself does not demonstrate secure attachment, it may contribute to continuity of care and support a stable care environment. The theory implies that when a caregiver provides stable financial security, it may indirectly promote emotional bonding and enhance the well-being of a child. However, the data show that fathers simultaneously face heavy financial burdens due to the continuous costs of raising a child with ASD.

The above remarks are evidenced by the following:

“I buy clothes, school uniforms, and other things for him because I am working”.

(P4)

“I also want to stress that even if you have medical assistance, you will never have enough money to care for your child with ASD. My spouse and I both work and while we receive medical assistance, 1 million of the medical aid become depleted within the first nine months”.

(P10)

“He costs me money because I have to constantly buy him clothes with money I don’t even have because I only work part-time and his mother doesn’t have a steady job. The difficulties we face in raising him are that his social grant is insufficient because we use it to pay for meals and school fees”.

(P5)

3.4. Family Supportive Role

In addition to the caregiving and protective role, the fathers also reported that they provide holistic family support. Some fathers were found to have taken steps to educate other children in the family about the child with ASD and the behavioural problems associated with ASD so that they can understand and know how to handle the child. Some fathers also reported that they provide emotional support to family members when needed. The supportive role in the family was reported to have brought the whole family closer than before, and the family no longer views having a child with ASD as a problem.

By mentoring and teaching the entire family, including the mother and other children, the father serves as the holistic family leader. In the same way, by teaching other children and members of the family about autism, the father may help in raising awareness and foster peace at home. These activities can also help to ensure that family care of the child with ASD is consistent, which is critical for the secure base relationship of attachment theory.

The above remarks are evidenced by the following:

“I help his mother decide what is best for our child with ASD, helping each other find a school for our child so that he will have a good future’ We give each other advice. “My wife and I support each other. We became closer than before”.

(P8)

“I also made an effort to educate his siblings about his condition and advised them to accept him as their brother and get used to his behavior. They now understand him better than me”.

(P9)

“As a man, I support my wife when she gets irritated and encourage her to continue trying. To date, it has been beneficial, since we no longer see having a child with autism as a problem; instead, we can handle it”.

(P6)

3.5. Management of Unacceptable Conduct as a Role

The study findings showed that fathers of children with ASD handle inappropriate behaviour of their children in various ways. Some fathers said that when their children with ASD exhibit inappropriate behaviour, they try hard to get them to stop; some hold their hands tightly for a while to help them calm down; and some simply urge them to stop, while some assist their children in dealing with challenging behaviours.

The findings imply that fathers are actively participating in the management of their children with ASD behavioural problems by employing a variety of methods, including successful and severe discipline tactics. Some fathers use harsh methods of discipline, which shows employment of authoritarian discipline, or some may be unaware of suitable behaviour management techniques. The use of physical punishment should be critically considered, as it is not an appropriate behavioural management strategy and has been associated with physical, emotional, and psychological harm to children. In children with ASD, behavioural problems can have a variety of underlying causes, such as difficulties in communication, changes in routine, and sensory or environmental factors. Consequently, responding to such behaviour through physical punishment can negatively affect the sense of safety and the caregiver–child relationship. From an ethical and child development practice perspective, this highlights an important need to support fathers with appropriate behavioural management strategies. The use of corporal punishment should not be interpreted as the paternal preference for harsh discipline; it may also reflect fathers’ attempt to cope with demanding behaviour in the absence of sufficient information, skills, and professional support.

According to the perspective of attachment theory, a secure base is achieved not only through direct caregiving interaction with the child, but also through the responsiveness, protection, and reassurance of caregivers when the child experiences distress or difficulty regulating their behaviour.

The above remarks are evidenced by the following:

“You have to be harsh when reprimanding him; eishhh, he can force you to do things that are not okay. You can end up beating him even when you don’t want to beat him. I don’t like to reprimand a child by beating him”.

(P3)

“When she is near me, I hold her tightly to stop her, but when she is far from me, I just run to her and hold her so that she can stop”.

(P12)

“I always stand by him, encourage him, and tell him to stop eating those clothes”.

(P5)

“I realized that she is not well mentally but lived with her; Whatever she is doing, if I see that this is wrong, I rebuke her, and she will listen to me and stop doing what she was doing”.

(P1)

4. Discussion

The researcher explored and described the roles that fathers play in the care of children with ASD in Limpopo Province, South Africa. According to this study, fathers of children with ASD are involved in their lives as caregivers. Most fathers who have children with ASD help their spouses take care of their child. Most of them help their children with activities such as bathing, feeding, taking their medications, and going to follow-up appointments with the speech therapist. Occasionally, they even play with their children.

The results align with the research that discovered that fathers of children with ASD worked together with their spouses to decide how best to raise their child, divide parenting responsibilities, attend their child’s ASD appointments and support their wives during these times [20]. According to Lien et al., most fathers of children with ASD reported playing activities with their children, being heavily involved in their daily care routine, and participating in their education, particularly when it came to helping with homework, taking their children to the doctor for an appointment, and being the primary caregiver during leisure activities [12].

The findings of this study are significant when considering the sociocultural context of Limpopo Province. In many African countries, fathers are traditionally expected to provide financial support and protect the family, while mothers are expected to assume more caregiving responsibilities [21]. However, the fathers in this study described involvement in caring responsibilities. This suggests that fatherhood is not limited to the traditional role of the provider but is negotiated to include more direct and hands-on caregiving roles. These findings should not be interpreted as evidence that all fathers in Limpopo Province had moved away from traditional gender expectations. The findings demonstrate how fathers of children with ASD can expand their roles in response to the demand related to care.

The study found that fathers of children with ASD protect their children with ASD. The protective role identified in this study can also be understood in terms of broader expectations of fatherhood, where fathers are expected to protect their families. In this study, protective responsibilities are associated with the vulnerabilities of children with ASD due to behavioural problems, difficulty with awareness of dangers, and possible negative response from other children. Consequently, the protective role of the father may represent both cultural responsibilities and an adaptation to the additional demand associated with ASD. However, the protective strategies reported in this study, such as restricting outdoor play, could reduce the opportunity for children with ASD to achieve independence, social interaction, and participation in community activities.

The literature revealed that caregivers of children with ASD are very concerned about their safety because their children are easily distracted and have developmental difficulties, such as balance problems, which can affect their ability to engage in protection actions [22]. Parents think their children are at risk when they participate in outdoor activities. Additionally, another study showed that since most children with ASD exhibit disruptive behaviour, parents and caregivers forbid them from playing outside or going to public places due to their improper behaviour [23]. The primary reason parents do this is to ensure their children’s safety.

Fathers of children with ASD were also found to fulfil a provider’s role for both children with ASD and their families. They were found to be the primary caregivers for their children with ASD, covering medical expenses and purchasing clothing, food and essential items for both children and their families. Additionally, children with ASD were said to receive a disability grant, which also helps meet their needs.

The provider role should not be viewed separately from the caregiving role. The findings suggest that fathers had some competing expectations and negotiated multiple roles; they had to provide financially and also be emotionally and physically available to their children. This is important in the context of ASD because caregiving for children with ASD involves expenditure in various forms of support, such as health care, transport, specialised diet, and educational services. The provider’s role may also add some additional pressure on fathers to work longer hours to secure sufficient funds.

The above findings align with a previous study, which found that fathers of children with ASD work more hours at work to earn enough money to pay for family expenses and that this, in most cases, causes emotional distress in fathers of children with ASD [24]. Another study also highlighted that a child with ASD needs lifetime care and assistance, which is very expensive [25]. The costs of education and institutional support for children with ASD are high. The expense of raising children with ASD covers educational expenses and the cost of additional supports, such as behavioural therapy. A child with ASD is likely to have significant lifetime costs, particularly those who are severely affected [24,25].

Another important contribution of this study is the way fathers appear to operate at both the child and family level. Fathers described themselves as supportive partners for their wives and a source of support for other children in the household. The description of joint decision making and emotional support by the father suggests that father participation may contribute to a more collaborative family response to ASD. At the same time, the findings can be interpreted in terms of cultural diversity within the Limpopo province. The findings suggest that traditional expectations of men as protective and supportive remain visible. Participation of fathers in ASD does not necessarily mean the transition from traditional to modern fatherhood; rather, fathers can simultaneously serve as a provider, protector, caregiver, emotional supporter, and decision maker.

The above findings align with previous studies that indicated that fathers of children with ASD support their wives in caring for their children with ASD [20,26]. They partner with their wives to make decisions on the plans for their children with ASD, child services and the most effective way to raise their child with ASD, and they also split up parenting responsibilities with their wives. Similarly, another study stated that fathers must protect their family and their ASD children [27,28]. Fathers relieve their partner’s emotional stress by guiding and encouraging their partners. The supportive role was also supported by Rudelli et al., who stated that fathers’ opinions also influence their level of engagement: the more they value their position as parents, the less avoidance they show in their interactions with children who have ASD [3]. Fathers who are involved and provide care are considered supportive fathers [20]. Another previous study indicated that fathers play a nurturing role within the family by expressing affection, guiding everyone in the family, attending church together, providing emotional support and dedicating more time to the family, among other ways [29,30].

Viewing the findings in terms of Bowlby’s attachment theory, the roles identified in this study extend beyond understanding fathers as providers and protectors. Fathers functioned as caregivers, emotional supporters, providers, decision makers, and protectors. The findings aligned with the secure style of attachment theory by ensuring that children with ASD experience their fathers as available, responsible, and reliable caregivers. However, the study does not establish that the children with ASD had a secure attachment to their fathers, as attachment security was not assessed in this study. Rather, the findings illustrate the caregiving behaviours that are theoretically consistent with the provision of the secure stye. Attachment theory in this study helps explain not only what fathers do, but also how their availability, protectiveness, and responsiveness can contribute to the child with ASD’s sense of safety and confidence in the family.

5. Recommendations

The study recommends the development and strengthening of father-centred and father-inclusive support systems for families raising children with ASD. The Department of Health and Social Development must formally integrate fathers into every aspect of childcare by creating father-inclusive guidelines in maternal and child health services, switching from the mother-centred approach to the family-centred one. As a result, fathers will routinely participate in consultation, decision making, and treatment for their children with ASD. Furthermore, the Department of Social Development needs to evaluate and improve disability social grants in order to increase financial assistance for children with ASD. To create a welcoming and secure environment for children with ASD in the community by fostering community support networks, more research needs to be done on father involvement in the care of children with ASD.

6. Limitation

The study focused on the fathers of children with ASD in rural areas of Limpopo Province; as a result, the findings cannot be applied to all fathers, especially those from diverse geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. The responses of the fathers could have been motivated by the desire to express themselves as supportive, as the study lacked many viewpoints from mothers or children with ASD. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data may have introduced self-desirable bias. Participants may have presented themselves as more supportive and involved in the care of children with ASD than in practice. The use of two data collection modalities constitutes a limitation of the study. The telephonic interview prevented the researcher from observing facial expressions, gestures, and other nonverbal information that may have assisted in understanding participants’ responses. Although the same interview guide and interviewing skills were applied in both modalities, some variation in the richness of the data cannot be completely excluded. However, most of the data were collected through face-to-face interviews, while still acknowledging the methodological limitations. Despite these variations, the interviews generated rich and relevant information to address the research question and achieve the objective of the study.

7. Conclusions

This study emphasises that father involvement in the lives of children with ASD extends far beyond the traditional role of a family caregiver. The findings demonstrate that fathers are involved in the daily caregiving and protective functions of the family, serving as a critical pillar of family support. The role of the father in the management of unacceptable behaviour is particularly significant, where his participation provides a complementary approach to behavioural intervention that stabilises the family unit. By fulfilling these various roles, fathers do not merely assist the primary caregiver; they reshape the family’s ability to adapt to the complexities of ASD. Ultimately, recognising the father as an active multidimensional participant is essential for healthcare professionals and policy makers. Future interventions must move toward family-centred models that provide fathers with the specific tools and psychological support needed to sustain these vital roles, ensuring better long-term outcomes for both the child and the family system.