Media Education and Media Literacy as a Factor in Combating Disinformation

Abstract

This article explores the crucial role of media education and media literacy as effective tools in combating disinformation. In the context of the growing influence of digital media and the increasing spread of fake news, propaganda, and manipulative content, the authors examine the level of awareness among young people regarding key media-related concepts such as media literacy, fake news, propaganda, and disinformation. A sociological survey was conducted among students from two Ukrainian higher education institutions—Ivan Franko National University of Lviv and Lviv Polytechnic National University—involving 277 respondents. The research aimed to evaluate the depth of understanding and preparedness of youth to critically assess media content and recognize signs of manipulative information. The findings indicate a clear trend: media awareness and critical thinking skills improve progressively from secondary school students to university students. This article emphasizes the importance of integrating media literacy into formal education systems as a long-term strategy to build a more informed and resilient society. The authors highlight the need for systematic educational initiatives and practical training in media literacy to empower young audiences in navigating the complex media environment and resisting the impact of disinformation.

1. Introduction

The modern information environment is changing rapidly. The flow of data that surrounds us is growing not just every day but every minute. Every day we receive and consume huge amounts of media content, calculated in gigabytes. That is why the ability to analyze, filter and recognize reliable sources of information has become extremely important. The concept of “information warfare” has firmly established itself in our daily lexicon. False or distorted information regularly appears in the media. That is why critical thinking and media literacy are not only relevant competencies but also vital tools in the realities of the modern world. These skills have become especially relevant for Ukrainians after Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Society must learn to resist information manipulation and the spread of false messages. In particular, this applies to the phenomena of disinformation, fakes, and manipulative content.

A new form of warfare today—one that does not rely on traditional weapons—is information warfare. Its primary goal is not to destroy people as a physical force, but to dismantle society itself (Mudra & Sinkova, 2017). The information space, particularly on social media, has become a battlefield where facts coexist with fakes and disinformation. This information landscape has turned into a war zone, and only the side capable of recognizing and countering disinformation can ultimately prevail.

Literature Review

Recent scholarship underscores the centrality of media education and media literacy in addressing the global challenge of disinformation. Within the European Union, media literacy is increasingly recognized as a strategic policy tool: Sádaba and Salaverría (2023) identify converging trends toward embedding media literacy into educational frameworks and public communication policies, highlighting the EU’s efforts to institutionalize these practices as a defense against disinformation. Building on this, Herrero-Curiel and La-Rosa (2022) focus on secondary education students, finding that while young people are heavy consumers of digital media, they frequently lack the critical competencies necessary to discern manipulative or false content.

Experimental research further demonstrates the protective effect of targeted interventions. Jones-Jang et al. (2021) reveal that information literacy—rather than generic media literacy—plays the strongest role in recognizing fake news, suggesting that interventions should emphasize fact-checking and verification skills. Adjin-Tettey (2022) provides experimental evidence that structured media literacy education can significantly reduce susceptibility to disinformation. Similarly, Hwang et al. (2021) show that media literacy training reduces the persuasive impact of highly deceptive deepfakes, emphasizing its importance in technologically mediated disinformation environments.

Beyond formal education, critical and data literacies have emerged as crucial dimensions. Soßdorf et al. (2024) argue that critical media literacy and data literacy together are necessary to counteract algorithmically amplified fake news. Moore and Hancock (2022) show that digital media literacy interventions tailored for older adults increase resilience to misinformation, a demographic often considered especially vulnerable. Likewise, Boler et al. (2025), in a scoping review, synthesize adult-oriented interventions and recommend multifaceted approaches that combine cognitive, emotional, and civic strategies to enhance resilience.

Finally, new empirical work explores the direct effects of digital literacy on judgment accuracy. Sarmiento et al. (2025) find that digital media literacy skills significantly improve individuals’ ability to correctly discern truth from falsehood, underscoring literacy as a determinant of information accuracy in democratic contexts. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that media education provides the structural and curricular foundation, while media literacy—particularly when expanded to include critical, digital, and data dimensions—operationalizes resilience against disinformation across diverse populations.

2. Materials and Methods

Both empirical and theoretical methods were applied in the study. The primary data collection method was an online questionnaire survey. To ensure the reliability of the research instrument, an expert evaluation method was used during the questionnaire development process, involving specialists in media literacy. The collected data underwent basic statistical analysis. In addition, general scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis, comparison, and generalization were applied to interpret the results.

A quantitative data collection method—a questionnaire survey—was employed within the study. The survey was conducted using an online form created on the Google Forms platform and hosted on Google Drive. The questionnaire went through several stages of editing and refinement, including consultations with media literacy experts to ensure logical structure, content quality, and accurate formulation of questions. The final questionnaire consisted of 14 questions, including closed, open-ended, and semi-closed types.

The questionnaire consisted of three thematic blocks: (1) students’ knowledge and recognition of disinformation and manipulation, (2) practices of verifying online information, and (3) attitudes towards fact-checking and media literacy. The instrument included 14 questions: closed-ended (e.g., multiple choice), semi-closed. For instance, students were asked whether they had encountered disinformation on various platforms, how often they verify suspicious content, and which sources they consider reliable. To ensure content validity, the draft questionnaire was reviewed by three media literacy experts with academic and practical experience. Their recommendations resulted in three rounds of revision of question wording and structure. Reliability was tested using Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.81), which demonstrates good internal consistency of the instrument.

When designing the first block of questions, we aimed to assess the level of students’ knowledge and awareness in the field of media literacy. In other words, this block was focused on evaluating the cognitive dimension of media literacy. To achieve this, we formulated questions such as: “Have you ever heard the term ‘media literacy’?”, “Are you familiar with the concepts of fake news, disinformation, and propaganda?”, “Can you explain the difference between misinformation and disinformation?”. The answers to these questions were intended to reveal whether students know and understand the key concepts of media literacy and whether they can distinguish between different types of false information.

The second block included questions such as: “How often do you verify suspicious information online?”, “Which fact-checking sources do you use?”, “On which platforms (Telegram, TikTok, Facebook, Instagram) do you most often encounter disinformation?”. Here, we sought to determine how often students apply critical thinking in practice, how regularly they verify suspicious content, and which tools they rely on when doing so. This block reflected the behavioral dimension of media literacy.

The third block aimed to explore to what extent students perceive disinformation as a threat to Ukraine’s information space, which countermeasures they consider the most effective, and what role they assign to media literacy in modern society. For this purpose, we included questions such as: “Do you consider disinformation a threat to Ukraine’s information security?”, “What methods of countering disinformation do you consider the most effective (educational programs, explanatory videos, legal restrictions)?”, “Should media literacy be taught as a mandatory subject in schools and universities?”.

The questionnaire also included demographic questions regarding gender, age, university, and year of study. Participation in the survey was voluntary and anonymous, and respondents were free to withdraw at any time.

The target audience of the study included journalism students from all academic years of the Department of Journalism and Media Communication (JMC) at Lviv Polytechnic National University, as well as the Faculty of Journalism at Ivan Franko National University of Lviv. Therefore, the sample is targeted, but despite this, it allows us to obtain results regarding the knowledge of media literacy among future journalists at the local and all-Ukrainian educational levels. Although the results cannot be extrapolated to the entire general population of journalism students in Ukraine, they are representative within the defined target group. After all, NULP and LNU are the most popular universities in Ukraine, in recent years they have been among the 5 most popular universities in Ukraine in terms of the number of applications submitted by applicants. These two universities are key and significant in Ukraine; the Lviv School of Journalism is one of the oldest and most reputable in the country, which has trained and continues to train journalists working in different regions of Ukraine and the world for many decades. These two universities annually graduate a large number of graduated journalists, so the results obtained as a result of the survey are of great importance not only at the local or regional levels but also at the all-Ukrainian level.

Participation in the survey was voluntary, and students of 1–4 years at the bachelor’s level and 1–2 years at the master’s level took part. Students learned about the survey on the official resources of the universities, and a link to the questionnaire was sent to participants via email, as well as posted on the official pages of the specified department and faculty on social networks Facebook and Instagram

The survey was conducted between December 2024 and January 2025. A total of 277 students participated in the study, students of all courses at two leading Ukrainian universities that train future journalists, which is sufficient for analysis and meets the requirements for the minimum volume for research.

The collected data was systematized and processed using Google Forms tools, which automatically provided basic statistical outputs (including chart generation and percentage calculations of responses). The results were analyzed using a quantitative analysis method, allowing for the identification of major trends, dominant opinions, and respondents’ level of awareness regarding the topic.

In the interpretation phase, descriptive statistics methods were applied (such as frequency and percentage calculations), along with comparative analysis to identify differences in responses across student groups from different academic years and institutions. Selected open-ended responses were analyzed using qualitative content analysis to gain deeper insight into respondents’ perspectives.

The following hypotheses were formulated in the study:

Hypothesis 1.

Students possess basic knowledge to recognize disinformation and manipulation.

Hypothesis 2.

Students do not always verify suspicious information found online.

To test these hypotheses, the results obtained through the survey were used. The questionnaire contained specific questions that would confirm or refute the hypotheses put forward. In particular, the verification of Hypothesis 1 (Students have basic knowledge to recognize disinformation and manipulation) was carried out on the basis of questions related to whether they noticed disinformation, detected it on various platforms. Hypothesis 2 (Students do not always check suspicious information on the Internet) was tested using questionnaire questions on the frequency of checking information. The results obtained were analyzed and described. According to their results, Hypothesis 1 was confirmed, and Hypothesis 2 was not confirmed by the results obtained, because the students answered that they always check suspicious information.

3. Results

3.1. History of Media Education in Ukraine

The process of implementing media literacy in Ukraine began back in 2010. Then, the “Concept for Implementing Media Education in Ukraine” was adopted, which was updated in 2016. It states that in 2021–2025, “scientific, methodological and organizational support for the process of mass implementation of media education in preschool institutions, preschool educational institutions, vocational schools and universities, and out-of-school education institutions should be provided based on the analysis of practical problems, exchange of experience, and provision of appropriate psychological and pedagogical support; introduction of a media education component into the curricula of higher education and postgraduate education in the humanitarian training of specialists of all profiles” (Naidionova & Sliusarevskyi, 2016). In general, the main goal of the Concept is to “facilitate the development of an effective media education system in Ukraine, which should become the foundation of the state’s humanitarian security, the development and consolidation of civil society, counteraction to external information aggression, and comprehensively prepare children and youth for safe and effective interaction with the modern media system, to form media information literacy and media culture among citizens in accordance with their age, individual and other characteristics.” (Naidionova & Sliusarevskyi, 2016). We can say that the development of media literacy should become a key direction of state information policy and cover all segments of the population.

In February 2018, the then Minister of Education and Science of Ukraine, Liliya Hrynevych, presented the “Learn and Distinguish” project. It aims to integrate critical thinking and media literacy into the educational process through an interdisciplinary approach. The initiative is implemented by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine in cooperation with the international organization IREX and the Academy of the Ukrainian Press. Since 2011, the Academy of the Ukrainian Press has been constantly training teachers of regional institutes of postgraduate pedagogical education. Most of them later worked as regional coordinators for the implementation of media education, and accordingly, media education and media literacy are taught in various forms in all Regional Institutes of Postgraduate Pedagogical Education. In 2022, the Academy of the Ukrainian Press held 394 events for educators, where they had the opportunity to update their knowledge of media literacy and hear how media education can be disseminated in their teaching work. (Research results on the implementation of media education practices in secondary schools, 2023).

3.2. Media Education of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv and Lviv Polytechnic National University

In March 2018, a three-day training was organized in Kyiv at the initiative of the Ukrainian Press Academy and with the support of DW Akademie, the main goal of which was to train specialists in the field of media literacy. One of the authors of the publication, Nataliia Voitovych, participated in this training event and received a media literacy trainer certificate, gaining valuable practical experience and professional competencies necessary for the further dissemination of media education practices. As the result of this professional growth the author created the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and it was implemented into the educational process of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv. Initially included in the curriculum of the Faculty of Journalism, the course was later offered as an elective for students from other faculties of the university. Over the course of six academic years, the course was taken by 697 full-time students representing over 17 majors, both humanities and natural sciences. Traditionally, the largest number of students remain from the Faculty of Journalism, but students from the Faculties of Foreign Languages, International Relations, and Law also showed significant interest. Among natural science majors, the most active in studying media literacy was demonstrated by students of the faculties of biology, geography, economics, as well as electronics and applied mathematics. The course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” is taught as an elective subject in the first semester for 3rd year students. Every year, the number of students is constantly growing: the figures range from 62 to 157 people.

As a logical continuation of this course, in the second semester, as a discipline of free choice, students were offered another author’s course—“Critical Thinking and Media”. The dynamics of the number of students who chose this course ranged from 50 to 185 people. Over the course of five years, 698 students took it.

As a result, both courses—“Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and “Critical Thinking and Media”—were mastered by 1395 full-time students of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv. They effectively used this opportunity to improve their own competencies in the field of media literacy and the development of critical thinking.

It is worth noting that both courses are certified by the international organization IREX, which implements them with the support of the US Embassy and the British Embassy in Ukraine, in partnership with the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and the Academy of the Ukrainian Press within the project “Learn and Distinguish: Infomedia Literacy.”

As part of the media literacy course, students mastered a number of relevant topics, including: journalistic standards, fake news, disinformation, gender stereotypes, hate speech, cybersecurity, cyberbullying, manipulative techniques, expert selection, hidden advertising, clickbait, sexism, post-truth, information bubble, influence of media owners, as well as distinguishing between facts and judgments.

The course notes state that by studying the academic discipline “Critical Thinking and Media”, students will become familiar with the basic principles of critical thinking, as well as consider the role of mental processes in the creation and consumption of information. Studying the course will help students understand the concepts of “information aggression”, “propaganda”, “manipulation”, “fake news”, “stereotypes” and learn to resist them, as well as fact-check the information received. During lectures and practical classes, students will learn the main methods of psychological influence on recipients, the psychological characteristics of the target audience, overcome stereotypes, and learn to think outside the box.

The aim of teaching the discipline is to familiarize students with the key concepts of critical thinking. Students must acquire and master the skills of critical thinking, analysis, fact-checking, and resistance to manipulative technologies used in the media.

Learning outcomes: Students should know the basic principles of fact-checking, the psychological characteristics of target audiences, the main methods of psychological influence on the recipient, and stereotypes and prejudices that are relayed through the media. Students must learn the skills of critical thinking, analysis, processing and use of information, in particular, recognizing fake and true information, avoiding and confronting manipulative technologies, and being aware of the risks of propaganda and disinformation.

And studying the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” will help students understand the concepts of “information aggression”, “propaganda”, “manipulation”, “fake news”, “stereotypes” and learn how to resist them, as well as fact-check the information received. During lectures and practical classes, students will learn the main methods of psychological influence on recipients, the psychological characteristics of the target audience, overcome stereotypes, and learn to think outside the box. During the study period, in addition to theoretical study of lecture material, students completed practical tasks and thematic exercises, which contributed to the consolidation of theoretical material in practice. For each lesson, appropriate tasks were selected taking into account the topic and didactic goal. Practical materials were borrowed from educational and methodological resources: Integration of infomedia literacy into the educational process. Educational and methodological materials of the project “Learn to Discern: Media Literacy” (Integration of media and information literacy into the educational process (2019). Educational and methodological materials of the project “Learn to Discern: Media Literacy”, 2019), “Practical media literacy guidebook for multipliers” (Ivanov, 2019), “Media literacy: technologies and practical application” (Voitovych & Imbirovska-Syvakivska, 2024), Media and information literacy online: A trainer’s manual, (Taranenko, 2021).

The article “Media Literacy for Students of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv: Implementation Challenges” presents the main practical tasks that students perform in practical classes and a detailed structure of the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” (Voitovych, 2022, pp. 28–36).

In 2018, a survey was conducted among students and trainees of the Junior Academy of Sciences to determine the level of awareness of the concept of “media literacy”, interest in various aspects of this topic, and ideas about ways to spread media literacy among young people. 96.9% of respondents were mostly students, the remaining 3.1% were schoolchildren who were also students of the Junior Academy of Sciences. As a result of the survey, 96 questionnaires with answers were received.

Among the main questions were three: Is this the first time you have encountered the concept of “media literacy”? 17.7% of respondents answered that, unfortunately, it was the first time, 71.9% wrote that they were already familiar with this concept, and only 10.4% stressed that they were well-versed in the topic.

The second question was as follows: “Which block, in your opinion, is the most necessary to study and disseminate among the public to increase information literacy?” The question provided several options for answers. Thus, 58.3% of respondents answered that it was the block “Manipulation, propaganda, distortion of information”, the second place—55.2% of respondents chose the block “The role of critical thinking in the process of perceiving media messages”, the third place—41, 7% of young people chose the block “Online tools for verifying information”, the fourth place—29.2% of students chose the block “Interactive forms and methods in the process of teaching media literacy”, the fifth place—according to the results of the survey—was taken by the block “Information security”.

In response to the question “Other”, some respondents suggested training and fact-checking. The third question was: “Which of the listed options for implementing media education in your opinion has the greatest impact on its development and dissemination in Ukraine?”. The question was also multivariate. According to 57.4% of respondents, the most influential on the development of media education will be “the introduction of “Media Literacy” in the educational process as a separate subject”, 45.7% of students believed that it is necessary to “conduct similar training for a wide range of participants”, and one-third of respondents—31.9%—that it is necessary to “integrate “Media Literacy” into most subjects of the educational process” (Ivanov et al., 2023). Most respondents consider the introduction of a separate subject on media literacy into the educational process effective, which confirms the need for a systematic and targeted approach to the formation of critical thinking. At the same time, a significant portion of students support the idea of conducting trainings for a wider audience, which demonstrates the demand for informal education in this area. The appeal of a third of respondents to an integration approach, which involves the inclusion of elements of media literacy in most academic subjects, demonstrates the desire for interdisciplinarity and the need for comprehensive development of media competencies.

The Faculty of Journalism of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv listened to students’ requests. In the 2025–2026 academic year, the discipline “Media Literacy and Critical Thinking” is offered to 3rd-year students, and elements of media literacy are integrated into a number of academic disciplines—“Media Economics”, “History of Ukrainian Journalism”, “Organization of the Press Service”, “Ethical and Legal Norms of Journalism”, “Political Image in the Structure of the Communication Space”, which are certified by the international organization IREX, which implements them with the support of the US Embassy and the British Embassy in Ukraine, in partnership with the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine and the Academy of the Ukrainian Press within the project “Learn and Distinguish: Infomedia Literacy”, as well as “Media Security” and “Theory and Methodology of Journalism: Informational and Analytical Genres.”

The results of a study conducted by the Academy of Ukrainian Press in 2023 show that educators are interested in spreading media literacy. In their opinion, “media education should cover as many areas as possible, including fully educational (not individual academic subjects). Respondents see the need to introduce mandatory study of a media literacy course as an invariant component of typical educational programs. Then it is possible to achieve better results and efficiency in the dissemination of media literacy knowledge.” (Research results on the implementation of media education practices in secondary schools, 2023).

At Lviv Polytechnic National University, master’s students are offered a course titled “Information Security and Information Warfare in the Media”, while second-year undergraduate students take “Media Security”. These courses provide students with fundamental knowledge about disinformation, fake news, and manipulative content. They are taught to recognize, detect, and resist disinformation on the Internet.

Each year, more than 130 journalism students complete these courses. Additionally, during Global Media and Information Literacy Week, lecturers conduct open interactive media literacy sessions for journalism students of various academic years.

A comparative perspective on media education and media literacy reveals both their shared goals and distinct functions in combating disinformation in Ukraine and abroad. Media education is understood as a formal, often institutionalized process that equips students and citizens with theoretical knowledge about media systems, communication models, and the socio-political role of information flows (Buckingham, 2003). Media literacy, by contrast, emphasizes practical competencies such as critical evaluation of sources, fact-checking, and resistance to manipulative narratives (Hobbs, 2010). In Ukraine, the urgency of wartime disinformation has accelerated initiatives that integrate media education into curricula and foster media literacy campaigns targeting the broader population, often with the support of civil society and international partners (Dovbysh & Ocheretyana, 2022). In countries such as Finland or Estonia, media literacy is deeply embedded in school programs and public life, contributing to societal resilience against foreign propaganda (Carlsson, 2019; Salomaa & Palsa, 2021). Meanwhile, in the United States and Western Europe, media literacy is frequently linked to digital literacy, focusing on algorithmic awareness and social media use (Mihailidis, 2018). This comparison suggests that while media education provides the theoretical foundation, media literacy operationalizes these insights into everyday practices, and their combined application is particularly critical for Ukraine’s information security in the face of hybrid warfare.

3.3. Results of the Survey of Journalism Students’ Ability to Recognize Disinformation

In order to determine whether journalism students are able to recognize and identify disinformation, a descriptive survey was conducted. A total of 277 journalism students from different academic years (ranging from 1 to 5.5 years of study) participated in the survey.

Almost all respondents (93.9%) reported that they know what media literacy is and are familiar with its basic principles and foundations. 4.7% of respondents reported that they are not sufficiently familiar with the basics of media literacy, while the remaining 1.4% stated that they do not know the basics of media literacy at all. A significant majority (95.3%) indicated that they are able to detect fake news and disinformation in the media, which suggests that journalism students possess essential skills for identifying disinformation messages. However, 2.9% admitted that they do not notice disinformation content online. One respondent explained that they do not encounter disinformation because they prefer to consume only reliable and high-quality media. The rest of the respondents noted that they very rarely come across suspicious content. Furthermore, the majority of respondents (88.4%) stated that they verify suspicious information or content that appears to contain fake elements. Only 7.2% reported that they do not verify such information, while the remaining participants indicated that their actions depend on specific circumstances. Nearly all surveyed journalism students (98.9%) believe that the spread of disinformation poses a threat to Ukraine’s information space. One respondent answered that they do not consider disinformation dangerous, while the rest remained undecided.

The main platforms for spreading such disinformation are predominantly social media platforms (97.1%) and online media (62.1%). Respondents also reported encountering disinformation messages on television (23.1%) and radio (5.1%). According to the participants, print mass media contained the least amount of disinformation. This question allowed respondents to choose multiple options, so many selected several platforms where they most often noticed disinformation.

Most frequently, disinformation and fake content are distributed through hyperlinks, as indicated by the majority of respondents (59.2%). Disinformation was also spread using images (29.9%) and video materials (9.4%). The rest answered that they didn’t notice disinformation.

Telegram was identified as the leading platform for the spread of fakes and disinformation—242 respondents selected it. (This question also allowed multiple responses.) The second most mentioned platform was TikTok (201 respondents), followed by Facebook in third place (135 respondents), and Instagram in fourth (105 respondents). Viber and X (formerly Twitter) shared fifth and sixth places, as these platforms were reported to have the least amount of fake information.

The results of the study show that journalism students are able to detect and recognize disinformation on social platforms and in the media. While combating this type of content is quite difficult, the respondents believe that the most effective method is through educational and explanatory video materials disseminated on social platforms—a view shared by 61% of respondents. Additionally, 18.1% believe that more explanatory information should be provided in the mass media, while 17.3% recommend organizing more disinformation-related training sessions for various age groups, professions, and social segments of the population. Other respondents chose the option «Your version», where they pointed out that it is necessary to introduce discipline with the basis of media literacy into educational institutions (schools, colleges, universities).

Other respondents stated that it is essential to teach the basics of media literacy in schools and to cultivate critical thinking among the public. They also suggested that strict criminal liability should be introduced for creating and spreading disinformation. A total of 238 respondents agreed that everyone should be taught the fundamentals of media literacy (Figure 1).

Thus, journalism students from the two Lviv universities possess basic knowledge of media literacy, are able to distinguish fake news and manipulations, and view disinformation as a threat to the country’s information space. They believe that media literacy should be taught not only to journalism students but to all people, both in Ukraine and globally.

This perspective highlights students’ willingness to apply their knowledge in practice. Consequently, the universities offer specialized courses that allow for a deeper understanding of media literacy and its practical applications.

As an elective discipline, third-year students at Ivan Franko National University of Lviv choose the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application.” The dynamics of enrollment indicate a steady growth of interest in this educational offering. Specifically, in the 2020/2021 academic year, 62 students took the course; in 2021/2022—132 students; in 2022/2023—108 students; in 2023/2024—157 students; and in 2024/2025—152 students of the university.

In addition to this course, taught in the first semester, students in the second semester have the opportunity to take the discipline “Critical Thinking and Media.” For example, in the 2023/2024 academic year, 185 students of Ivan Franko National University of Lviv enrolled in this course.

The course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” is offered in the first semester and consists of 8 lectures and 8 practical classes. In the second semester, students study the course “Critical Thinking and Media,” which also includes 8 lectures and 8 practical classes. Both lecture and practical sessions, conducted by Associate Professor Nataliia Voitovych, are based on the use of interactive teaching methods. For instance, during the class on “Fact and Opinion,” students are divided into pairs and groups to complete exercises that help them distinguish between the two concepts. Each student must formulate an opinion, and their partner reformulates it into a factual statement, and vice versa. This exercise develops critical thinking skills and attentiveness to different levels of information.

Among other methods is the exercise “Snowflake,” which demonstrates that each individual perceives information differently, forming their own interpretation. While studying topics related to discrimination and hate speech, students analyze a historical case—the conflict in Rwanda between the Tutsi and Hutu tribes. Particular attention is paid to the rhetoric broadcast by “Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines,” which illustrates how media messages can provoke social conflict and violence.

Another exercise used in practical classes is “Identify Hate Speech in Headlines.” Students receive a selection of media texts and must identify examples of discriminatory or toxic formulations, then propose alternative headlines free from hate speech. Such interactive practices not only facilitate the assimilation of theoretical material but also help students develop practical skills of analysis, interpretation, and the creation of ethical media content.

Studying the courses “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and “Critical Thinking and Media” is extremely important for students, as they foster essential skills of analyzing and interpreting information required in today’s media environment. Practical tasks aimed at distinguishing facts from opinions, identifying hate speech, or analyzing propaganda texts help future professionals learn to critically evaluate content and work responsibly with information. This contributes not only to the professional growth of journalism students but also to the formation of active civic engagement, as media literacy and critical thinking are key competencies of contemporary society.

To enhance the effectiveness of the educational process within the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” (Voitovych & Imbirovska-Syvakivska, 2024), a textbook titled “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” was developed in 2024. The textbook was authored by Associate Professor Natalia Voitovych from the Department of Theory and Practice of Journalism at Ivan Franko National University of Lviv (lecturer of the courses “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and “Critical Thinking and Media”) and Assistant Liliya Imbirovska-Syvakivska.

The textbook aims to familiarize students and a wider audience with the fundamental concepts and challenges of media literacy, stimulate interest in the topic, and foster the development of critical thinking skills.

In May 2024, the textbook was presented in an online event (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIYBg0_uATo accessed on 15 April 2025), which was open to all interested participants, including students. The presentation received numerous positive responses. For example, third-year student Antonina from Ivan Franko National University of Lviv commented: “Thank you for an engaging and useful broadcast! I believe this information is extremely important for contemporary society.” Student Anastasiya D. noted: “Thank you for providing interesting and relevant information.” Listener Mia remarked: “Thank you for this textbook and your work. The broadcast was very informative.” Viktoriya S. highlighted: “Thank you! It was valuable and will remain so.” Student Olena shared: “I have saved the textbook. Media literacy is a crucial skill, especially at present.” Diana V. emphasized: “The textbook structure is very interesting, and I particularly appreciated the glossary.” Finally, listener Daria summarized: “Thank you for the broadcast. Your effort was evident, and it was very useful.”

The textbook is structured around 14 topics, fully aligned with the curriculum of the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application.” It covers a wide array of subjects, from foundational principles of media literacy and journalistic standards to the analysis of media owners’ influence on content, political and commercial “paid content” phenomena, the role of sociology in electoral processes, toxic headlines, and fact-checking as a key tool to counter propaganda and disinformation.

Several chapters focus on issues such as stereotypes, discrimination, xenophobia, and hate speech. Considerable attention is also given to the impact of digital technologies, including bullying and cyberbullying, as well as cybersecurity challenges. The concluding chapters explore evidence-based medicine in combating misinformation and the intersection of media literacy with environmental issues.

A key feature of the textbook is its glossary, which provides concise and precise definitions of essential media literacy terms. Each topic includes self-assessment questions and practical exercises, suitable for both seminar activities and independent student work.

It is important to trace how these approaches are implemented in the practice of higher education. That is why the analysis of the curricula of academic disciplines taught at the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv and the Lviv Polytechnic National University makes it possible to identify different levels of student training and the specifics of the formation of competencies in the field of media literacy, critical thinking, and information security.

The Lviv Polytechnic National University offers a course called “Information Security and Information Warfare in the Mass Media” for students of the master’s level of education. Its goal is to develop in-depth knowledge of the nature of information warfare and skills to counter information aggression in future journalists. The program pays significant attention to the analysis of specific cases, in particular, Russia’s information campaigns against Ukraine, US psychological operations in Haiti, as well as the spread of fake news during the COVID-19 vaccination period. The discipline is focused on training specialists for analytical and managerial activities in the field of national security.

As for the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, it offers undergraduate students the courses “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and “Critical Thinking and Media.” They are elective subjects and are aimed at developing basic skills in critical perception of information.

The course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Applications” is aimed at familiarizing students with key concepts of media literacy, fact-checking tools, and methods of countering disinformation. Topics covered within the discipline include “Clickbait as Media Bait,” “Stereotypes and Hate Speech,” “Manipulation in Politics,” and “Fake News and Fact-Checking.” Practical classes are built on interactive methods, including exercises such as “Fact and Statement”, “Cat in the Bag of Information”, “Political Games”, analysis of talk shows and media headlines. A special feature is the integration of international educational resources, including the Very Verified online course and materials from the IREX project “Learn and Distinguish”.

The course “Critical Thinking and Media” combines an interdisciplinary approach and provides students with knowledge of the psychology of information perception, social and media manipulation, as well as topics related to societal challenges. The curriculum includes the topics “Bullying and Cyberbullying in Modern Society”, “Gender Issues in the Media”, “Evidence-Based Medicine Against Fakes”, “Climate Change and Environmental Problems through the Lens of the Media”. Practical tasks focus on analyzing medical and environmental fakes, detecting manipulation of digital data, and working with interdisciplinary cases.

Thus, the course “Media Literacy: Technologies and Practical Application” and the course “Critical Thinking and Media” at the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv are focused on developing basic skills to distinguish facts and statements, identify propaganda, avoid stereotypes, and counteract manipulation in the media. At the same time, the course “Information Security and Information Warfare in the Media” at the National University “Lviv Polytechnic” is in-depth and prepares students for professional activity in the conditions of information warfare, focusing on issues of state information policy, strategies for countering propaganda and protecting national interests.

4. Discussion

The problem of spreading disinformation via media and social networks is not new.

A 2025 survey by the Pew Research Center revealed that 72% of adults across 25 countries view the spread of false information online as a major threat to their nation (Pew Research Center, 2025). This concern spans both high- and middle-income countries and has remained relatively stable over time. Notably, older individuals and those on the ideological left are particularly likely to perceive online false information as a significant threat. For instance, in the United States, 82% of liberal adults consider it a major threat, compared to 60% of conservatives (Pew Research Center, 2025). Fallis (2015) declares that prototypical instances of disinformation include deceptive advertising (in business and in politics), government propaganda, doctored photographs, forged documents, fake maps, internet frauds, fake websites, and manipulated Wikipedia entries. Disinformation and its impact on local media have become central concerns in contemporary media studies. Fernández-Barrero et al. (2024) examine the Iberian context, highlighting strategies to protect news credibility. They emphasize the crucial role of local media in countering fake news and stress the importance of monitoring and maintaining information quality. Expanding on the theme of civic literacy, Lilja et al. (2024) examine the relationship between civic literacy and susceptibility to disinformation in democracies. They argue that developing critical thinking and verification skills is fundamental to sustaining a healthy information environment, reinforcing the importance of reliable media sources highlighted by Fernández-Barrero et al. (2024).

The results of our research proves that the most variety of disinformation is spread via hyperlinks. While photos and videos take 30% and 10%. It can be explained by the fact that Ukrainian young audiences usually get information from channels in messenger Telegram, and some of them permanently redirect users to the other sources. It can also be one of the reasons why Telegram is indicated as the main source of disinformation.

Mikhailidi (2023) explains that unlike generally accepted rules, Telegram publishing policies differ from many social networks, as in Telegram there is no moderation of published content that gives a great opportunity to produce fake news and as the result of it—quick mass disinformation. It can look strange that the audience, understanding the large amount of fake news in Telegram channels, still prefer it as a source of information. M. Kitsa (2023) in her research demonstrated the results of a survey, where almost 86% of respondents indicated three points of advantages of news Telegram-channels—efficiency, brevity, and convenience. So till the time when a new, most quality messenger with similar functions appears, Telegram, probably, will still remain a popular source of information, especially among young audiences.

The problem of spreading disinformation via Telegram channels is not only a Ukrainian or Eastern European issue. Willaert et al. (2022) in their research examine Dutch Telegram channels and conclude that in the Netherlands they also often act as a source of fake news. The next sources of disinformation due to our research are Tik Tok and Facebook. This state of affairs is also not new or exceptional. Shu (2022) underscores that the creation, dissemination, and consumption of disinformation and fabricated content on social media is a growing concern, especially with the ease of access to such sources and the lack of awareness of the existence of such false information. For example, Tik Tok was one of the most popular social networks, spreading news about the Russian–Ukrainian war. According to the data, presented in the article The sound of disinformation: TikTok, computational propaganda, and the invasion of Ukraine (Bösch & Divon, 2024), during the initial three months after the Russian invasion in February 2022, videos under the hashtag #Ukraine garnered 36.9 billion views, with individual videos scaling up to 88 million views. Beyond the traditional methods of spreading misleading information through images and text, the medium of sound has emerged as a novel, platform-specific audiovisual technique. The interest in the war in Ukraine remains high in this social network for now. In the end of 2024, there was published an AI generated fake video allegedly with drunk Ukrainian President V. Zelenskyi. The video has gotten millions of views not only in Tik Tok, but in other social media as well. Bösch and Divon (2024) explain that TikTok’s recommendation system (the “for you” page) acts as a sound space where exposure is strategically navigated through users’ intervention, enabling semi-automated “soft” propaganda to thrive by leveraging its audio features.

The reason for the fast spread of mis- and disinformation in TikTok is its algorithms. This algorithm volatilises a large amount of content, which is likely to escalate rapidly, making the platform vulnerable to disinformation, which is currently incipient, but which, as it continues to grow, could become a more serious problem (Alonso-López et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the authors conclude that TikTok is a network that facilitates the spread of disinformation, but which in turn is a tool for debunking hoaxes beyond the range of action of conventional media.

Debunking fakes through Tik Tok is one more issue that should be discussed. On the one hand, the source, which spreads a large amount of fake videos via special algorithms, is hard to overcome. On the other hand, the same algorithms can be used to refute fakes. The findings of Bhargava et al. (2023) reveal moderate evidence for the effectiveness of debunking on TikTok. Watching a correction video does appear to improve credibility judgments of the same-topic subsequent videos watched on TikTok. However, the researchers declare that this effect is weak and only marginally statistically significant in some specifications of the analysis. Furthermore, this weak effect only occurs if the correction video is immediately preceded by the misinformation video (i.e., debunking condition). To enhance the effectiveness of debunking hoax news, Ruak (2023) suggests that TikTok should continue its efforts to educate users, strengthen content moderation, and collaborate with fact-checking organizations. Users, on the other hand, should exercise critical thinking, fact-check information before sharing, and report suspicious content.

Complementing these insights, Matsiola (2024) emphasizes the role of innovative pedagogical tools, demonstrating that interactive videos can effectively enhance media literacy education in communication and media courses. The study shows that interactive formats significantly increase student engagement and understanding of disinformation mechanisms, supporting the broader view that both media credibility and civic literacy are crucial in addressing disinformation.

The same thought was mentioned in our survey. Respondents emphasized that educational and debunking videos, which are spread via social media, can serve as an effective tool for refuting hoax news. While our recipients declared that they know how to detect and debunk disinformation, they also recommended conducting more trainings about disinformation for different age and social groups. This thought can also be approved by the research of Berger et al. (2023). The authors state that the impact of fact checking is limited to the corrected fake news, whereas media literacy helps to distinguish between false and correct information more generally, both immediately and two weeks after the intervention.

Nevertheless, there are some promising means for detecting and combating disinformation. Aïmeur et al. (2023) propose to use three kinds of tools for it: human-based techniques, Artificial Intelligence-based techniques and blockchain-based techniques. In our research we focused mostly on human-based techniques, while AI and blockchain-based remained out of our attention among our respondents. So, it would be justified to conduct the next research considering these two directions for debunking disinformation.

5. Conclusions

The findings of this study provide important insights into the preparedness of journalism students to navigate and critically engage with the contemporary information environment. The results indicate that these students possess a high level of media literacy, with 93.9% familiar with its foundational principles and 95.3% able to recognize fake news and disinformation. A substantial majority (88.4%) actively verify suspicious content, reflecting well-developed critical evaluation skills that are essential for professional practice. Nearly all participants (98.9%) perceive disinformation as a significant threat to Ukraine’s information space, demonstrating an awareness of its broader social and political implications. According to respondents, social media platforms, particularly Telegram and TikTok, are the primary channels for disinformation, followed by online media, while traditional outlets such as print, television, and radio are less affected. Disinformation is mainly disseminated via hyperlinks, images, and videos, highlighting the importance of multimedia literacy. Students identified educational and explanatory video content on social platforms as the most effective countermeasure, alongside broader media education, targeted training sessions for diverse populations, and the integration of media literacy into school curricula. Many also emphasized fostering critical thinking and introducing stricter legal accountability for the creation and dissemination of disinformation. Overall, 238 respondents agreed that media literacy should be taught to everyone, suggesting that these competencies are crucial not only for future journalists but also for the wider society in navigating today’s complex information landscape.

Media literacy is a crucial component in the education of future journalists. As active participants in the media environment, they will constantly encounter disinformation and manipulative content and must be equipped to recognize it. The results of the survey conducted among students of Ivan Franko National University of Lviv and Lviv Polytechnic National University (277 respondents) confirmed Hypothesis 1: “Students possess basic knowledge for identifying disinformation and manipulations.”

However, Hypothesis 2—“Students do not always verify suspicious information online”—was not confirmed, as the results showed that 88.4% of respondents always verify questionable information.

Survey participants believe that basic media literacy is essential for everyone. They emphasize the importance of integrating media literacy into formal education, as well as creating educational and explanatory content for social media. These measures should become part of a long-term strategy to develop a resilient, critically thinking, and well-informed society.