Analysis of Gluten Protein After Replacing Some of the Wheat Flour with Amaranth Flour in Muffins †
by
, ,
Vesna Gojković Cvjetković
1,*, 
Dragana Škuletić
1,
Željka Marjanović-Balaban
2,
Danijela Rajić
1,
Milan Vukić
1,
Milenko Smiljanić
1 and
Dragan Vujadinović
1 1
Faculty of Technology Zvornik, University of East Sarajevo, Karakaj 34a, 75400 Zvornik, Bosnia and Herzegovina
2
Faculty of Forestry, University of Banja Luka, Bulevar vojvode Petra Bojovića 1A, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Presented at the IX International Congress “Engineering, Environment and Materials in Process Industry”—EEM2025, Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2–4 April 2025.
Eng. Proc. 2025, 99(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025099003
Published: 9 June 2025
Abstract
:Amaranth belongs to the pseudocereal group. This pseudocereal does not contain gluten, and is suitable for a gluten-free diet. This paper aimed to examine how the partial replacement of wheat flour with amaranth in muffins at different ratios and with different storage times affects gluten proteins. Gluten protein separation was performed by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Based on the obtained results, the greatest total quantity of gliadin protein was obtained from muffin samples made from 100% wheat flour and stored for 4 weeks (Xav = 20.33), and the least from muffins made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth and stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 12.00). The greatest total quantity of glutenin protein was obtained from muffin samples made from 100% wheat flour and stored for 4 weeks (Xav = 26.67), and the least from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth and stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 17.33).
1. Introduction
Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.) is a type of pseudocereal that is gluten-free. It is an excellent protein source and is appropriate for vegans, those on gluten-free diets, and individuals monitoring their calorie consumption [1,2]. Owing to its high fiber levels, it promotes a sense of fullness, aids digestion, and supports weight loss. It is abundant in proteins and healthy fats and provides essential minerals like potassium, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, and manganese, along with vitamins A, B6, K, and C, as well as folic acid and riboflavin [3]. It is suitable for both children and infants, helping them build immunity against infections. It is advised for women to enhance bone strength and increase iron levels in the blood. Because of its high folic acid content, it is recommended during pregnancy [4,5]. It safeguards against the possibility of miscarriage and reduces the chances of brain and neural tube injury in infants [6,7,8].
Lately, there has been a rise in the number of individuals with gluten allergies [9,10]. Given that amaranth is high in protein and lacks gluten, the objective of this study was to investigate how the partial substitution of wheat flour with amaranth in muffin samples and the duration of storage (0, 2, and 4 weeks) influence gluten proteins (gliadins and glutenins). Protein separation was conducted using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The absorbance was measured at a wavelength of 210 nm. Following the separation of gluten protein, the total protein content as well as the quantities of gliadin and glutenin protein within the fractions were assessed.
2. Materials and Methods
This study examined gluten proteins—gliadins and glutenins from muffin samples. Three sets of four samples were created, based on the substitution of a portion of the wheat flour with amaranth flour. Amaranth was incorporated in ratios of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%.
Muffins were made following the procedure outlined by Bialek et al. [11]. The baked muffins were kept in polyethylene bags at 1 °C.
Gliadin was extracted using 70% (v/v) ethanol (REAHEM, Srbobran, Serbia), while glutenin was extracted with 50% (v/v) ethanol, incorporating Tris-HCl (0.05 mol/L, Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, USA), urea (2 mol/L, Sigma Aldrich, Darmstadt, Germany), and dithioerythritol (1%, ACROS Organics, Switzerland) in accordance with the technique of Wieser et al. [12] and Gojković Cvjetković et al. [13].
Protein separation was carried out on an HPLC instrument (Agilent Technologies 1260 Infinity, Santa Clara, CA, USA).
3. Results
Table 1 presents the overall quantity of gliadin protein (Xav), along with the quantities of gliadin found in different fractions (ω5, ω1,2, α + β and γ), following extraction from muffin samples composed entirely of wheat flour.
Based on the results obtained (Table 1), it is evident that the greatest total quantity of protein was extracted from the samples that had been stored for 4 weeks (Xav = 20.33), while the lowest was from samples that had been stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 19.33).
Table 2 presents the total quantity of gliadin protein (Xav), along with the quantities of gliadin fractions (ω5, ω1,2, α + β and γ), following extraction from muffin samples made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
Based on the obtained results (Table 2), it is evident that the maximum total quantity of protein was extracted from the samples that were kept for 2 weeks (Xav = 19.67), while the minimum was extracted from the samples that were preserved for 0 and 4 weeks (Xav = 18.00).
Table 3 presents the total quantity of gliadin protein (Xav), in addition to the gliadin quantities within the fractions (ω5, ω1,2, α + β, and γ), following extraction from muffin samples made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
The greatest overall quantity of protein was obtained from the samples that had been stored for 2 weeks (Xav = 18.33), whereas the lowest was from the samples that had been stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 12.00) (Table 3).
Table 4 presents the total quantity of gliadin protein (Xav), along with the quantities of gliadin in fractions (ω5, ω1,2, α + β, and γ), following extraction from muffin samples made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
The greatest overall quantity of protein was obtained from the samples preserved for 2 weeks (Xav = 15.33), while the lowest was extracted from the samples kept for 0 and 4 weeks (Xav = 13.67) (Table 4).
Table 5 presents the total quantity of glutenin protein as well as the quantities of glutenin protein within the fractions, following extraction from muffin samples prepared with 100% wheat flour.
According to the results obtained (Table 5), it is evident that the greatest total quantity of protein was obtained from the samples stored for 4 weeks (Xav = 26.67), while the lowest was from the samples stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 21.33).
Table 6 presents the total quantity of glutenin protein as well as the quantity of glutenin protein within the fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from of 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
The greatest overall quantity of protein was obtained from the samples kept for 4 weeks (Xav = 26.00), while the lowest was from the samples stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 19.00) (Table 6).
Table 7 presents the total quantity of glutenin protein and the glutenin protein quantities within the fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
The greatest overall quantity of protein was obtained from the samples kept for 4 weeks (Xav = 20.67), while the lowest was derived from the samples stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 17.67) (Table 7).
Table 8 presents the total quantity of glutenin protein and the glutenin protein quantities within the fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
Based on the obtained results (Table 8), it can be seen that the greatest overall quantity of glutenin protein was extracted from the samples stored for 4 weeks (Xav = 22.00), and the lowest from the samples stored for 0 weeks (Xav = 17.33).
4. Discussion
According to the results obtained, the gliadin protein content of muffin samples made from 100% wheat flour during storage for 0, 2, and 4 weeks increases, while that of muffin samples made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour; 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour; and 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour increases and then decreases.
The glutenin protein content obtained from muffin samples made from 100% wheat flour; 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour; 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour; and 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour increased during storage for 0, 2, and 4 weeks. This phenomenon can be explained by an increase in protein solubility during storage with the addition of amaranth flour to the product [14].
Nasir et al. [14] investigated the physical, textural, rheological, and sensory characteristics of amaranth-based wheat flour bread. According to the obtained results, the addition of amaranth flour increased moisture, ash, protein, fat, and raw fiber content. Texture measurements showed that hardness, chewiness, springiness, and cohesiveness increased with the replacement of amaranth flour.
Vázquez-Villegas et al. [15] investigated the effect of wheat flour substitution and popped amaranth flour content on the rheological, physiochemical, and textural properties of a hot-press wheat–oat–quinoa–amaranth composite flour tortilla. Based on the obtained results, the addition of amaranth had a positive effect on the protein content, total dietary fiber content, and protein solubility of the tortilla.
Cotovanu and Mironeasa [16] studied the influence of different sizes of amaranth particles and the level of addition on characteristics of wheat flour and bread via rheology. Based on the obtained results, an increase in the amount of amaranth led to a significant increase in proteins, lipids, and ash content, while humidity and carbohydrates decreased with the composite flour.
5. Conclusions
The analysis of gluten proteins (gliadin and glutenin) after having replaced part of the wheat flour with amaranth flour and storing for 0, 2, and 4 weeks led to the following conclusions.
The greatest gliadin protein content was obtained from muffin samples based on 100% wheat flour samples stored for 4 weeks and was Xav = 20.33, and the lowest content was obtained from the samples of muffins made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour and stored for 0 weeks, and was Xav = 12.00.
For glutenin, the greatest content was obtained from 100% wheat flour and stored for 4 weeks, Xav = 26.67, and the least content was obtained from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour, stored for 0 weeks, Xav = 17.33. It can be concluded that protein solubility increases during the addition of amaranth flour and storage within 0, 2, 4 weeks.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, V.G.C. and D.Š.; methodology, V.G.C., Ž.M.-B. and D.V.; software, V.G.C., Ž.M.-B. and D.R.; validation, V.G.C., M.V. and M.S.; formal analysis, D.Š. and D.R.; investigation, V.G.C. and D.Š.; data curation, V.G.C.; writing—original draft preparation, V.G.C., Ž.M.-B., and D.V.; writing—review and editing, V.G.C. and Ž.M.-B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work is a part of the research project “Examination of the effect of replacing wheat flour with pseudocereals on gluten proteins” No 19.032/961-32/23, financed by the Ministry of Science and Technology Development and Higher Education of the Republic of Srpska.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
All research data have been reported in this manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
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Table 1.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffins produced using 100% wheat flour.
Table 1.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffins produced using 100% wheat flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of gliadin protein | 0 | 3 | 19.33 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 18.00 | 21.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 20.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 19.00 | 21.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 20.33 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 19.00 | 21.00 | |
| ω5 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 4.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| ω1,2 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.33 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 2.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 | |
| α + β gliadins | 0 | 3 | 5.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 4.00 | 6.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 6.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 5.00 | 8.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 6.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 5,00 | 7.00 | |
| γ gliadins | 0 | 3 | 7.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 7.00 | 8.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 5.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 5.00 | 6.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 8.33 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 7.00 | 9.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 0.50, Sig. = 0.63 > 0.05, eta square = 1.55/10.89 = 0.14 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω5) | F(2.6) = 0.60, Sig. = 0.58 > 0.05, eta square = 0.67/4.00 = 0.17 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω1,2) | F(2.6) = 1.44, Sig. = 0.31 > 0.05, eta square = 2.89/8.89 = 0.32 | ||||||
| ANOVA (α + β) | F(2.6) = 1.46, Sig. = 0.30 > 0.05, eta square = 4.22/12.89 = 0.33 | ||||||
| ANOVA (γ) | F(2.6) = 8.67, Sig. = 0.02 < 0.05, eta square = 11.55/15.55 = 0.74 | ||||||
Table 2.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
Table 2.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of gliadin protein | 0 | 3 | 18.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 17.00 | 19.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 19.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 18.00 | 21.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 18.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 17.00 | 19.00 | |
| ω5 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| ω1,2 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 2.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| α + β gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| γ gliadins | 0 | 3 | 8.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 8.00 | 9.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 9.33 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 8.00 | 10.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 8.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 8.00 | 9.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 1.92, Sig. = 0.23 > 0.05, eta square = 5.55/14.22 = 0.39 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω5) | F(2.6) = 0.57, Sig. = 0.59 > 0.05, eta square = 0.89/5.55 = 0.16 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω1,2) | F(2.6) = 2.67, Sig. = 0.15 > 0.05, eta square = 3.55/7.55 = 0.47 | ||||||
| ANOVA (α + β) | F(2.6) = 0.37, Sig. = 0.70 > 0.05, eta square = 0.67/6.00 = 0.11 | ||||||
| ANOVA (γ) | F(2.6) = 1.17, Sig. = 0.37 > 0.05, eta square = 1.55/5.55 = 0.28 | ||||||
Table 3.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
Table 3.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of gliadin protein | 0 | 3 | 12.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 11.00 | 13.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 18.33 | 3.21 | 1.85 | 16.00 | 22.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 14.00 | 1.73 | 1.00 | 12.00 | 15.00 | |
| ω5 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 2.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 2.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 | |
| ω1,2 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 2.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 1.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 2.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 | |
| α + β gliadins | 0 | 3 | 0.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 0.00 | 1.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 2.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| γ gliadins | 0 | 3 | 7.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 6.00 | 8.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 11.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 10.00 | 12.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 6.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 6.00 | 6.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 6.58, Sig. = 0.03 < 0.05, eta square = 62.89/91.55 = 0.69 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω5) | F(2.6) = 0.60, Sig. = 0.58 > 0.05, eta square = 0.67/4.00 = 0.16 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω1,2) | F(2.6) = 3.50, Sig. = 0.09 > 0.05, eta square = 1.55/2.89 = 0.54 | ||||||
| ANOVA (α + β) | F(2.6) = 22.33, Sig. = 0.001 < 0.05, eta square = 14.89/16.89 = 0.88 | ||||||
| ANOVA (γ) | F(2.6) = 31.50, Sig. = 0.000 < 0.05, eta square = 42.00/46.00 = 0.91 | ||||||
Table 4.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
Table 4.
The overall quantity of gliadin protein and the quantity of gliadin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffins made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of gliadin protein | 0 | 3 | 13.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 13.00 | 14.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 15.33 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 14.00 | 17.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 13.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 13.00 | 14.00 | |
| ω5 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| ω1,2 gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 3.00 | 3.00 | |
| α + β gliadins | 0 | 3 | 4.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 3.00 | 5.00 | |
| γ gliadins | 0 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 5.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 5.00 | 7.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 2.78, Sig. = 0.14 > 0.05, eta square = 5.55/11.55 = 0.48 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω5) | F(2.6) = 0.36, Sig. = 0.70 > 0.05, eta square = 0.89/8.22 = 0.11 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ω1,2) | F(2.6) = 0.00, Sig. = 1.00 > 0.05, eta square = 0.00/4.00 = 0.00 | ||||||
| ANOVA (α + β) | F(2.6) = 1.00, Sig. = 0.42 > 0.05, eta square = 1.55/6.22 = 0.25 | ||||||
| ANOVA (γ) | F(2.6) = 7.17, Sig. = 0.03 < 0.05, eta square = 9.55/13.55 = 0.70 | ||||||
Table 5.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffin samples created using 100% wheat flour.
Table 5.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein in fractions, following extraction from muffin samples created using 100% wheat flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of glutenin protein | 0 | 3 | 21.33 | 2.08 | 1.20 | 19.00 | 23.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 25.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 25.00 | 26.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 26.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 25.00 | 28.00 | |
| ωb gliadins | 0 | 3 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 0.00 | 2.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 1.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 | |
| HMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 6.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 6.00 | 8.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| LMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 16.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 15.00 | 18.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 18.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 18.00 | 19.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 21.33 | 2.52 | 1.45 | 19.00 | 24.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 10.33, Sig. = 0.01 < 0.05, eta square = 48.22/62.22 = 0.77 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ωb) | F(2.6) = 1.00, Sig. = 0.42 > 0.05, eta square = 0.89/3.55 = 0.25 | ||||||
| ANOVA (HMW) | F(2.6) = 13.50, Sig. = 0.006 < 0.05, eta square = 18.00/22.00 = 0.82 | ||||||
| ANOVA (LMW) | F(2.6) = 5,59, Sig. = 0,04 < 0,05, eta square = 33.55/51.55 = 0.65 | ||||||
Table 6.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
Table 6.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 75% wheat flour and 25% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of glutenin protein | 0 | 3 | 19.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 18.00 | 20.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 20.00 | 2.65 | 1.53 | 17.00 | 22.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 26.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 25.00 | 27.00 | |
| ωb gliadins | 0 | 3 | 1.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 1.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 2.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 2.00 | 3.00 | |
| HMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 5.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 5.00 | 6.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| LMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 14.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 14.00 | 15.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 13.33 | 2.08 | 1.20 | 11.00 | 15.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 20.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 19.00 | 21.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 14.33, Sig. = 0.005 < 0.05, eta square = 86.00/104.00 = 0.83 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ωb) | F(2.6) = 5.33, Sig. = 0.05, eta square = 3.55/5.55 = 0.64 | ||||||
| ANOVA (HMW) | F(2.6) = 8.60, Sig. = 0.02 < 0.05, eta square = 9.55/12.89 = 0.74 | ||||||
| ANOVA (LMW) | F(2.6) = 19.76, Sig. = 0.002 < 0.05, eta square = 74.67/86.00 = 0.87 | ||||||
Table 7.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
Table 7.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 50% wheat flour and 50% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of glutenin protein | 0 | 3 | 17.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 16.00 | 19.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 18.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 18.00 | 19.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 20.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 20.00 | 22.00 | |
| ωb gliadins | 0 | 3 | 1.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 1.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 2.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
| HMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 3.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 2.00 | 4.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 3.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| LMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 13.00 | 1.73 | 1.00 | 11.00 | 14.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 13.67 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 12.00 | 15.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 16.33 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 15.00 | 18.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 5.25, Sig. = 0.05, eta square = 14.00/22.00 = 0.64 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ωb) | F(2.6) = 2.00, Sig. = 0.22 > 0.05, eta square = 0.89/2.22 = 0.40 | ||||||
| ANOVA (HMW) | F(2.6) = 0.20, Sig. = 0.82, eta square = 0.22/3.55 = 0.06 | ||||||
| ANOVA (LMW) | F(2.6) = 3.65, Sig. = 0.09 > 0.05, eta square = 18.67/34.00 = 0.55 | ||||||
Table 8.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
Table 8.
The overall quantity of glutenin protein and the quantity of glutenin protein within fractions, following extraction from muffin samples made from 25% wheat flour and 75% amaranth flour.
| Storage Time (Weeks) | N | Xav | SD | Std. Error | Min | Max | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| The overall quantity of glutenin protein | 0 | 3 | 17.33 | 1.53 | 0.88 | 16.00 | 19.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 18.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 18.00 | 20.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 22.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 21.00 | 23.00 | |
| ωb gliadins | 0 | 3 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 2.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.00 | 2.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 1.67 | 1.15 | 0.67 | 1.00 | 3.00 | |
| HMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 4.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 3.00 | 5.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 3.67 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 3.00 | 4.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 4.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 4.00 | 5.00 | |
| LMW glutenins | 0 | 3 | 12.33 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 12.00 | 13.00 |
| 2 | 3 | 13.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 12.00 | 14.00 | |
| 4 | 3 | 16.00 | 1.00 | 0.58 | 15.00 | 17.00 | |
| ANOVA (TQP) | F(2.6) = 11.14, Sig. = 0.009 < 0.05, eta square = 34.67/44.00 = 0.79 | ||||||
| ANOVA (ωb) | F(2.6) = 1.75, Sig. = 0.25 > 0.05, eta square = 1.55/4.22 = 0.37 | ||||||
| ANOVA (HMW) | F(2.6) = 0.60, Sig. = 0.58 > 0.05, eta square = 0.67/4.00 = 0.17 | ||||||
| ANOVA (LMW) | F(2.6) = 14.71, Sig. = 0.005 < 0.05, eta square = 22.89/27.55 = 0.83 | ||||||
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Gojković Cvjetković, V.; Škuletić, D.; Marjanović-Balaban, Ž.; Rajić, D.; Vukić, M.; Smiljanić, M.; Vujadinović, D. Analysis of Gluten Protein After Replacing Some of the Wheat Flour with Amaranth Flour in Muffins. Eng. Proc. 2025, 99, 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025099003
AMA Style
Gojković Cvjetković V, Škuletić D, Marjanović-Balaban Ž, Rajić D, Vukić M, Smiljanić M, Vujadinović D. Analysis of Gluten Protein After Replacing Some of the Wheat Flour with Amaranth Flour in Muffins. Engineering Proceedings. 2025; 99(1):3. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025099003
Chicago/Turabian StyleGojković Cvjetković, Vesna, Dragana Škuletić, Željka Marjanović-Balaban, Danijela Rajić, Milan Vukić, Milenko Smiljanić, and Dragan Vujadinović. 2025. "Analysis of Gluten Protein After Replacing Some of the Wheat Flour with Amaranth Flour in Muffins" Engineering Proceedings 99, no. 1: 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025099003
APA StyleGojković Cvjetković, V., Škuletić, D., Marjanović-Balaban, Ž., Rajić, D., Vukić, M., Smiljanić, M., & Vujadinović, D. (2025). Analysis of Gluten Protein After Replacing Some of the Wheat Flour with Amaranth Flour in Muffins. Engineering Proceedings, 99(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025099003
