Gut Microbiota, NAFLD and COVID-19: A Possible Interaction
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. NAFLD and COVID-19 Progression
3. Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Cytokine Storm
4. Pathogenic Links between the Gut Microbiota, NAFLD and Gut–Lung Axis in COVID-19
5. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Hu, B.; Guo, H.; Zhou, P.; Shi, Z.L. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2021, 19, 141–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Garland, V.; Kumar, A.B.; Borum, M.L. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Manifestations of COVID-19: Evolving Recognition and Need for Increased Understanding in Vulnerable Populations. J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 2021, 113, 142–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ozkurt, Z.; Çınar Tanrıverdi, E. COVID-19: Gastrointestinal manifestations, liver injury and recommendations. World J. Clin. Cases. 2022, 10, 1140–1163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kariyawasam, J.C.; Jayarajah, U.; Abeysuriya, V.; Riza, R.; Seneviratne, S.L. Involvement of the Liver in COVID-19: A Systematic Review. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2022, 106, 1026–1041. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cichoż-Lach, H.; Michalak, A. Liver injury in the era of COVID-19. World J. Gastroenterol. 2021, 27, 377–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finelli, C.; Tarantino, G. What is the role of adiponectin in obesity related non-alcoholic fatty liver disease? World J. Gastroenterol. 2013, 19, 802–812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guan, C.; Fu, S.; Zhen, D.; Yang, K.; An, J.; Wang, Y.; Ma, C.; Jiang, N.; Zhao, N.; Liu, J.; et al. Metabolic (Dysfunction)-Associated Fatty Liver Disease in Chinese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes from a Subcenter of the National Metabolic Management Center. J. Diabetes Res. 2022, 2022, 8429847. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitra, S.; De, A.; Chowdhury, A. Epidemiology of non-alcoholic and alcoholic fatty liver diseases. Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020, 5, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, P.; Arora, A. Clinical presentation of alcoholic liver disease and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: Spectrum and diagnosis. Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020, 5, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hegyi, P.J.; Váncsa, S.; Ocskay, K.; Dembrovszky, F.; Kiss, S.; Farkas, N.; Erőss, B.; Szakács, Z.; Hegyi, P.; Pár, G. Metabolic Associated Fatty Liver Disease Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Severe COVID-19: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis. Front. Med. 2021, 8, 626425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.; Wu, S.; Wu, C.; Zhang, Q.; Wu, F.; Yu, B.; Zhang, S.; Wu, C.; Wu, G.; Zhong, Y. Association between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with the susceptibility and outcome of COVID-19: A retrospective study. J. Cell Mol. Med. 2021, 25, 11212–11220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Finelli, C. Obesity, COVID-19 and immunotherapy: The complex relationship! Immunotherapy 2020, 12, 1105–1109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Litwiniuk, A.; Bik, W.; Kalisz, M.; Baranowska-Bik, A. Inflammasome NLRP3 Potentially Links Obesity-Associated Low-Grade Systemic Inflammation and Insulin Resistance with Alzheimer’s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 5603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Delli Bovi, A.P.; Marciano, F.; Mandato, C.; Siano, M.A.; Savoia, M.; Vajro, P. Oxidative Stress in Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. An Updated Mini Review. Front. Med. 2021, 8, 595371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fondevila, M.F.; Mercado-Gómez, M.; Rodríguez, A.; Gonzalez-Rellan, M.J.; Iruzubieta, P.; Valentí, V.; Escalada, J.; Schwaninger, M.; Prevot, V.; Dieguez, C.; et al. Obese patients with NASH have increased hepatic expression of SARS-CoV-2 critical entry points. J. Hepatol. 2021, 74, 469–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vrsaljko, N.; Samadan, L.; Viskovic, K.; Mehmedović, A.; Budimir, J.; Vince, A.; Papi, N.C. Association of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease with COVID-19 Severity and Pulmonary Thrombosis: CovidFAT, a Prospective, Observational Cohort Study. Open Forum. Infect. Dis. 2022, 9, ofac073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Neshat, S.Y.; Quiroz, V.M.; Wang, Y.; Tamayo, S.; Doloff, J.C. Liver Disease: Induction, Progression, Immunological Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Interventions. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 6777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marjot, T.; Moon, A.M.; Cook, J.A.; Abd-Elsalam, S.; Aloman, C.; Armstrong, M.J.; Pose, E.; Brenner, E.J.; Cargill, T.; Catana, M.A.; et al. Outcomes following SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients with chronic liver disease: An international registry study. J. Hepatol. 2021, 74, 567–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharma, P.; Kumar, A.; Anikhindi, S.; Bansal, N.; Singla, V.; Shivam, K.; Arora, A. Effect of COVID-19 on Pre-existing Liver disease: What Hepatologist Should Know? J. Clin. Exp. Hepatol. 2021, 11, 484–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marjot, T.; Webb, G.J.; Barritt, A.S., 4th; Moon, A.M.; Stamataki, Z.; Wong, V.W.; Barnes, E. COVID-19 and liver disease: Mechanistic and clinical perspectives. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 18, 348–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, F.E.M.; Mohammedsaleh, Z.M.; Ali, M.M.; Ghogar, O.M. Impact of cytokine storm and systemic inflammation on liver impairment patients infected by SARS-CoV-2: Prospective therapeutic challenges. World J. Gastroenterol. 2021, 27, 1531–1552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lazarus, J.V.; Mark, H.E.; Anstee, Q.M.; Arab, J.P.; Batterham, R.L.; Castera, L.; Cortez-Pinto, H.; Crespo, J.; Cusi, K.; Dirac, M.A.; et al. Advancing the global public health agenda for NAFLD: A consensus statement. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 19, 60–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stefan, N.; Birkenfeld, A.L.; Schulze, M.B. Global pandemics interconnected—obesity, impaired metabolic health and COVID-19. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2021, 17, 135–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, J.; Liu, F.; Song, T.; Li, Z.; Xia, P.; Tang, X.; Xu, M.; Shen, Y.; Ma, J.; Liu, X.; et al. Liver Fibrosis Scores and Clinical Outcomes in Patients With COVID-19. Front. Med. 2022, 9, 829423. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miele, L.; Napodano, C.; Cesario, A.; de Magistris, A.; Pocino, K.; Basile, U.; Rapaccini, G.L.; Gasbarrini, A.; Grieco, A. COVID-19, adaptative immune response and metabolic-associated liver disease. Liver Int. 2021, 41, 2560–2577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xiang, F.; Sun, J.; Chen, P.H.; Han, P.; Zheng, H.; Cai, S.; Kirk, G.D. Early Elevation of Fibrosis-4 Liver Fibrosis Score Is Associated with Adverse Outcomes Among Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2021, 73, e594–e601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calapod, O.P.; Marin, A.M.; Onisai, M.; Tribus, L.C.; Pop, C.S.; Fierbinteanu-Braticevici, C. The Impact of Increased Fib-4 Score in Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus on COVID-19 Disease Prognosis. Medicina 2021, 57, 434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, K.J.; Moon, J.S.; Kim, N.Y.; Ko, J.S. Effects of PNPLA3, TM6SF2 and SAMM50 on the development and severity of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in children. Pediatr. Obes. 2022, 17, e12852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meroni, M.; Longo, M.; Tria, G.; Dongiovanni, P. Genetics Is of the Essence to Face NAFLD. Biomedicines 2021, 9, 1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, Y.; Yang, X.; Bian, H.; Xia, M. Metabolic dysfunction associated fatty liver disease and coronavirus disease 2019: Clinical relationship and current management. Lipids Health Dis. 2021, 20, 126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, L.H.; Yao, D.H.; Wang, L.Y.; Zhang, L.; Bai, X.L. Gut Microbiome-Mediated Alteration of Immunity, Inflammation, and Metabolism Involved in the Regulation of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Front. Microbiol. 2021, 12, 761836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Singh, A.; Hussain, S.; Antony, B. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19: A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Metab. Syndr. 2021, 15, 813–822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, R.; Liu, C.; Xu, X.; Hu, Y.; Zhu, B.; Yang, C. Role of cytokine storm in coronavirus infections: Culprit or accomplice? Front. Biosci. 2022, 27, 102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Girija, A.S.S.; Shankar, E.M.; Larsson, M. Could SARS-CoV-2-Induced Hyperinflammation Magnify the Severity of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Leading to Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome? Front. Immunol. 2020, 11, 1206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meng, M.; Chen, L.; Zhang, S.; Dong, X.; Li, W.; Li, R.; Deng, Y.; Wang, T.; Xu, Y.; Liu, J.; et al. Risk factors for secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in severe coronavirus disease 2019 adult patients. BMC Infect. Dis. 2021, 21, 398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costela-Ruiz, V.J.; Illescas-Montes, R.; Puerta-Puerta, J.M.; Ruiz, C.; Melguizo-Rodríguez, L. SARS-CoV-2 infection: The role of cytokines in COVID-19 disease. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2020, 54, 62–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guo, J.; Wang, S.; Xia, H.; Shi, D.; Chen, Y.; Zheng, S.; Chen, Y.; Gao, H.; Guo, F.; Ji, Z.; et al. Cytokine Signature Associated with Disease Severity in COVID-19. Front. Immunol. 2021, 12, 681516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, J.; Yang, X.; Li, Y.; Huang, J.A.; Jiang, J.; Su, N. Specific cytokines in the inflammatory cytokine storm of patients with COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome and extrapulmonary multiple-organ dysfunction. Virol. J. 2021, 18, 117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hussain, I.; Cher, G.L.Y.; Abid, M.A.; Abid, M.B. Role of Gut Microbiome in COVID-19: An Insight into Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Potential. Front. Immunol. 2021, 12, 765965. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamamoto, S.; Saito, M.; Tamura, A.; Prawisuda, D.; Mizutani, T.; Yotsuyanagi, H. The human microbiome and COVID-19: A systematic review. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0253293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yu, Z.; Yang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Zhou, F.; Li, S.; Li, C.; Li, L.; Zhang, W.; Li, X. Recent advance of ACE2 and microbiota dysfunction in COVID-19 pathogenesis. Heliyon 2021, 7, e07548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Patil, P.; Bhandary, S.K.; Haridas, V.; Sarathkumar, E.; Shetty, P. Is butyrate a natural alternative to dexamethasone in the management of COVID-19? F1000Research 2021, 10, 273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burchill, E.; Lymberopoulos, E.; Menozzi, E.; Budhdeo, S.; McIlroy, J.R.; Macnaughtan, J.; Sharma, N. The Unique Impact of COVID-19 on Human Gut Microbiome Research. Front. Med. 2021, 8, 652464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nardo, A.D.; Schneeweiss-Gleixner, M.; Bakail, M.; Dixon, E.D.; Lax, S.F.; Trauner, M. Pathophysiological mechanisms of liver injury in COVID-19. Liver Int. 2021, 41, 20–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cai, Y.; Ye, L.P.; Song, Y.Q.; Mao, X.-L.; Wang, L.; Jiang, Y.-Z.; Que, W.-T.; Li, S.-W. Liver injury in COVID-19: Detection, pathogenesis, and treatment. World J. Gastroenterol. 2021, 27, 3022–3036. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Finelli, C. Gut Microbiota, NAFLD and COVID-19: A Possible Interaction. Obesities 2022, 2, 215-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities2020017
Finelli C. Gut Microbiota, NAFLD and COVID-19: A Possible Interaction. Obesities. 2022; 2(2):215-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities2020017
Chicago/Turabian StyleFinelli, Carmine. 2022. "Gut Microbiota, NAFLD and COVID-19: A Possible Interaction" Obesities 2, no. 2: 215-221. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities2020017