Engineering Assessment of Small-Scale Cold-Pressing Machines and Systems: Design, Performance, and Sustainability of Screw Press Technologies in Serbia

Abstract

Cold pressing is a sustainable oil extraction method that operates without chemical solvents, requires relatively low energy input, and preserves bioactive compounds, making it a recognized green technology in line with circular economy principles. By enabling full utilization of raw materials and valorization of by-products, it supports resource efficiency, waste reduction, and the development of bio-based products. This study provides the first comprehensive mapping of Serbia’s small-scale cold-pressed oil producers, based on data from the Central Register of Food Business Operators, local inspectorates, agricultural fairs, and social media, classified according to NUTS 2024 statistical regions. A total of 55 producers were identified, with over 60% operating as artisanal units (≤15 t/year), typically using screw presses of 20–50 kg/h capacity. Pumpkin seed was the most common raw material (30 producers), followed by sesame (21), hazelnut (20), sunflower (19), and flaxseed (19), while niche oils such as jojoba, argan, and rosehip were produced on a smaller scale. Medium and large facilities (>15 t/year) were concentrated in Vojvodina and central Serbia, focusing on high-volume seeds like sunflower and soybean. Integration of green screw press technologies, zero-kilometer supply chains, and press cake valorization positions this sector as a driver of rural development, biodiversity preservation, and environmental sustainability, providing a strong basis for targeted policy support and process optimization.

1. Introduction

In recent years, sustainable food production has become a central topic within agricultural and food policies worldwide. Driven by the growing need to reduce environmental impact, ensure food security, and improve resource-use efficiency, various strategies have been developed aiming to make food systems more resilient and environmentally friendly [1,2,3]. Conventional mass agricultural production, focused primarily on yield, has been achieved through excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, irrational utilization of agricultural waste, and heavy reliance on fossil fuels [3]. This has led to degradation of water bodies [4], deterioration of soil quality and land in general [5,6,7], as well as greenhouse gas emissions [8,9]. Optimizing food production quantities with an emphasis on reducing food and water waste by planning based on actual demand forms the foundation of economically sustainable production. This approach reduces the ecological footprint of the industry while conserving valuable resources. Furthermore, redirecting surplus food to those in need mitigates food supply uncertainty and hunger [10]. The green transformation of food production represents the shift from traditional extensive production models toward adopting green production concepts and technologies [3]. It is estimated that by 2050, the global population will increase by 2 billion, intensifying the demand for energy and resource consumption [11,12]. Key global trends include the promotion of low-energy, low-emission technologies, circular economy approaches, and decentralized small-scale processing units supporting local economies. Local facilities enable the supply chain to be shortened almost to zero kilometers, thereby reducing resource consumption. Global supply chains and mass production have resulted in a situation where more than 70% of international trade today involves intermediate products, raw materials, and value-added services crossing borders multiple times before reaching final consumers as finished products [13,14]. Consumers increasingly demand products that are not only safe and nutritious but also produced with minimal environmental impact. This has led to a significant rise in interest for traditional and minimally processed food products, often labeled as “natural,” “organic,” or “cold-pressed.” Cold pressing of oilseeds fits perfectly within this framework, as it is a mechanical process that does not require chemical solvents, consumes relatively low energy, and preserves the nutritional and bioactive components of oils [15,16,17,18]. The resulting cold-pressed oil is produced in a safe, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly manner [19]. Consequently, cold pressing is increasingly recognized as a green technology for edible oil production [20,21,22]. Its applicability in small processing units and alignment with sustainable development goals make it particularly relevant for both developed and developing countries. Moreover, international organizations and regulatory bodies are progressively incorporating sustainability criteria into food labeling, trade, and production standards, thereby further encouraging the adoption of environmentally friendly technologies throughout the supply chain [14].

This is especially important in countries with pronounced regional disparities in agricultural production, such as Serbia [23], where localized oil production in small-scale facilities enables better utilization of locally available oilseeds, reduces the need for long-distance transportation of raw materials and products, and encourages retention of added value within communities. Additionally, smaller facilities predominantly use screw presses, which consume significantly less energy compared to industrial extraction systems, making them suitable for green and low-carbon production strategies [18,22]. Small oil mills in Serbia provide flexible, local processing of a wide range of oilseeds—from conventional (such as sunflower, soybean, and rapeseed) to alternative and specialized raw materials (including flax, chia, pumpkin seed, hazelnut, and walnuts). These facilities play an important role in valorizing locally grown raw materials, preserving traditional production methods, and promoting rural development through self-employment and circular economy principles. However, despite their significance, Serbia still lacks a systematic registry of small oil mills, their technical capacities, quantities of processed raw materials, and market performance of their products. Specifically, the primary objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive mapping and engineering assessment of small-scale cold-pressing facilities in Serbia, encompassing their geographical distribution, processing capacities, and technological characteristics. The secondary objective is to analyze the range of screw-press machines available on the market and evaluate their relevance for sustainable production models, thereby linking technological choices with the long-term competitiveness of the cold-pressed oil sector. This dual approach provides a solid foundation for evidence-based policy planning and future comparative studies at the regional and international level. This review provides the first integrated engineering and sustainability assessment of small-scale cold-pressing systems beyond the olive oil sector, filling an evident research gap and offering a methodological framework applicable to other EU regions.

2. Serbia’s Small-Scale Oil Mills

Creating a unified register of processors is challenging because these are small-scale productions, often agricultural households, and processing is closely tied to annual crop yields. Consequently, such facilities frequently open and close depending on the harvest. Until now, only a very limited number of studies have focused on small-scale producers of cold-pressed vegetable oils, and such research is almost non-existent beyond olive oil. The study by Modica et al. (2024) [24] was limited to small Sicilian olive oil producers and did not include other oilseeds or processing technologies. Given the absence of similar systematic studies in international databases, the present work represents the first attempt to develop such an approach at the national level in Serbia, providing a foundation for future international comparisons and benchmarking.

For the identification of registered cold-pressed oil producers in the Republic of Serbia, the Central Register of Food Business Operators (CRFBO) was utilized. This register is maintained by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of the Republic of Serbia, in cooperation with the Serbian Business Registers Agency (APR) [25,26]. It represents an official database including all legal entities and individuals engaged in the production, processing, and trade of food products, including cold-pressed vegetable oils.

2.1. Methodology of Register Search

The register search was performed via the official online platform available at registarobjekata.minpolj.gov.rs (accessed on 21 July 2025). The search process involved the following steps:

• Keyword Input—Relevant keywords such as “cold-pressed oil,” “vegetable oils,” “sunflower oil,” “flaxseed oil,” “pumpkin oil,” and “oil production” were entered to identify pertinent entities efficiently.
• Filter Application—The register allows refining the search by facility type (e.g., agricultural farm, processing company), activity type, geographic location (municipality), and production capacity.
• Results Analysis—The obtained list of entities was reviewed in detail, including company or farm name, address, contact details, and specifics of production activities.

To supplement and verify the collected data, additional approaches included:

• Contact with Local Agricultural Inspectorates—These authorities provide up-to-date information on registered producers within their regions.
• Participation in Agricultural and Food Exhibitions—Trade fairs offered opportunities to engage with current producers, learn about their products, and explore innovations in cold-pressed oil production.
• Monitoring Social Media Channels—Many small and medium producers use platforms like Facebook and Instagram to promote products and communicate directly with customers, providing additional current information.

This comprehensive methodology enabled systematic data collection on cold-pressed oil producers, which is essential for market analysis, production planning, and strategic sector development. These citations refer to EQI 2024 data, which include NUTS 1 and NUTS 2 regions of Serbia. Although Serbia is not yet officially part of the NUTS system, the European Commission has agreed with Serbia on a nomenclature called “statistical regions” for statistical purposes (SR 2021—SR 2024) [27].

For creating the interactive map without programming, the Google My Maps service was used. Input data were prepared in Microsoft Excel 2024 format with columns for producer name, latitude, and longitude. The table was imported into Google My Maps, where points were automatically positioned based on coordinates. Colors, descriptions, and labels were added via the service interface according to analysis needs. An interactive map illustrating the study area and relevant spatial data is available via the following link: https://www.google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=1dtv-HSTKER2U8wewXqvQTNkgfxnzPTE&usp=sharing (accessed on 23 August 2025), providing readers with access to detailed geographical information used in this study.

2.2. Mapping

The first comprehensive overview of cold-pressed oil producers in Serbia, focusing on dominant raw materials, estimated processing capacities, facility categories, and potential oil applications, is presented in

Table 1. Overview of cold-pressed oil producers in Serbia, their dominant raw materials, estimated total capacities, category, and potential applications of oils [25,26,27].

No.	Original Producer Name	Region Based on NUTS 2024 1,2	Municipality	Dominant Raw Materials (Seeds, Kernels, Nuts, Fruits, etc.)	Estimated Total Capacity (Tons of Raw Material per Year, Based on 2020–2024), and Category 3	Potential Applications of Oils
1	“Riznica zdravlja Ripanj” Ltd., Ripanj	RS110	Voždovac, Belgrade	sunflower, pumpkin, poppy	12–15 (small)	foods
2	Jasna Stojanović Entrep. Trade All Nut, Belgrade	RS110	Stari Grad, Belgrade	apricot, plum, hazelnut, blackberry, raspberry, rosehip	8–10 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
3	Hyperic Ltd., Belgrade	RS110	Belgrade	pumpkin, almond, sesame, flax, coconut, black cumin	10–12 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
4	Probotanic Ltd., Belgrade	RS110	Belgrade	black cumin, apricot, wheat germ, grape seeds, jojoba, hazelnut, avocado	8–10 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
5	Kosta Professional Cosmetics, Belgrade	RS110	Belgrade	rosehip, argan, jojoba, castor	5–7 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
6	Agrose Ltd., Granice, Mladenovac	RS110	Mladenovac	rosehip	2–3 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
7	Agricultural Cooperative Živinostok, Sombor	RS121	Sombor	flax, pumpkin, sesame, almond, hazelnut	4–5 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
8	Linum Ltd., Čonoplja	RS121	Sombor	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, sesame, poppy, walnut, plum, rosehip, cornelian cherry	20–25 (medium)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
9	PanićAgro17 Ltd., Tovariševo	RS121	Bačka Palanka	hazelnut	3–5 (small)	foods, cosmetics
10	Vojel Ltd., Bač	RS121	Bač	sunflower, soybean	250–300 (large)	foods
11	Bački Dukat Plus Ltd., Odžaci	RS121	Odžaci	sunflower, pumpkin, flax	155–160 (large)	foods
12	Agro jedinstvo Ltd., Karavukovo	RS121	Odžaci	pumpkin	12–15 (small)	foods
13	Agricultural Cooperative Agrokula, Kula	RS121	Kula	pumpkin	22–25 (medium)	foods
14	“Olda Group” Ltd., Seleuš	RS122	Alibunar	sunflower	80–90 (medium)	foods
15	Miroslav Pavela Entrep. Oil Production HC ulje, Padina	RS122	Pančevo	sunflower, rapeseed, pumpkin, hazelnut, poppy	5–7 (small)	foods
16	Agricultural holding Čorogar, Pančevo	RS122	Pančevo	rapeseed, apricot, flax, hemp (industrial), poppy	12–15 (small)	foods, pharmaceuticals
17	Uvita Ltd., Debeljača	RS122	Kovačica	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, sesame	10–12 (small)	foods
18	Miloš Stojkov PR Lala ulje, Crepaja	RS122	Kovačica	sunflower, hazelnut	8–10 (small)	foods
19	Agrolek Ltd., Novi Sad, production facility Bač	RS123	Novi Sad	sunflower	450–500 (large)	foods
20	Petrovec Agrar Ltd., Bački Petrovac	RS123	Bački Petrovac	sunflower, pumpkin, flax	300–350 (large)	foods
21	Progres Ltd., Bački Petrovac	RS123	Bački Petrovac	sunflower	250–300 (large)	foods
22	Pan—Union Oil Ltd., Veternik	RS123	Novi Sad	pumpkin, flax, sesame, raspberry, blackberry	45–50 (medium)	foods, cosmetics
23	Pavle Berbakov Entrep. “Eliks Verde”, Futog	RS123	Novi Sad	pumpkin, flax, sesame, hazelnut, almond	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
24	Agricultural Cooperative Gramina, Novi Sad	RS123	Novi Sad	hemp (industrial)	8–10 (small)	pharmaceuticals
25	Vivaseed Ltd., Novi Sad	RS123	Novi Sad	pumpkin, flax, sesame, hazelnut, almond	10–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
26	Sanja Arbutina Entrep. Tvoja Pilja, Novi Sad	RS123	Novi Sad	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, hazelnut, sesame	3–5 (small)	foods
27	Biokanna Ltd., Novi Sad	RS123	Novi Sad	hemp (industrial)	10–12 (small)	pharmaceuticals
28	Đorđe Mladenović Entrep. Quantum Satis, Sremska Kamenica	RS123	Novi Sad	pumpkin, flax, sesame	23–25 (medium)	foods
29	Be Green International mj Ltd., Sremska Kamenica	RS123	Novi Sad	walnut, hazelnut, grape, almond, apricot	12–15 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
30	Željko Nićin Entrep. Omega Oil, Bečej	RS123	Bečej	pumpkin, sesame, almond, hazelnut	15–20 (medium)	foods, cosmetics
31	Agro-Kirish Ltd., Male Pijace	RS124	Kanjiža	pumpkin, flax, sesame, hazelnut, almond	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
32	Agricultural holding Krstonošić, Kikinda	RS124	Kikinda	pumpkin, hazelnut, almond, sesame, poppy	10–12 (small)	foods, cosmetics
33	Agricultural holding Krnić, Kikinda	RS124	Kikinda	pumpkin, hazelnut, almond, sesame, poppy	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
34	Agricultural holding Stepanov, Kikinda	RS124	Kikinda	pumpkin, hazelnut, almond, sesame, poppy	8–10 (small)	foods, cosmetics
35	Suncokret Ltd., Hajdukovo	RS125	Subotica	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, sesame, poppy, walnut, plum, rosehip, cornelian cherry	45–50 (medium)	foods
36	JS&O Ltd., Novo Miloševo	RS126	Novi Bečej	pumpkin	65–70 (medium)	foods
37	Biberova ulja Ltd., Perlez	RS126	Zrenjanin	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, sesame	12–15 (small)	foods
38	Agricultural Cooperative AlmaRosa, Sremski Karlovci	RS127	Sremski Karlovci	rosehip	4–5 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
39	Vitastil Ltd., Erdevik	RS127	Šid	sunflower	15–20 (medium)	foods
40	Vladimir Kovač Entrep. Ekovital, Bikić Do	RS127	Šid	sunflower, flax, pumpkin, hazelnut, almond, sesame, poppy	15–20 (medium)	foods, cosmetics
41	Agricultural holding Đurković, Ruma	RS127	Ruma	hemp (industrial)	5–8 (small)	pharmaceuticals
42	Vinarija Kovačević, Irig	RS127	Irig	red grape, white grape	7–8 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
43	Tijana Tomašević Entrep. Srbuška, Zlatibor	RS211	Zlatibor	rosehip	1–2 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
44	Agricultural holding Ivan Savić, Užice	RS211	Užice	pumpkin, hemp (industrial)	4–5 (small)	foods, pharmaceuticals
45	Cold-pressed Oil Production Ćićevac	RS214	Ćićevac	sunflower, soybean, pumpkin, walnut, flax	10–12 (small)	foods
46	Ivan Nešić Entrep. AgroPremium, Milatovac, Batočina	RS215	Batočina	pumpkin, walnut, hazelnut, almond, sesame, poppy	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
47	Danijela Martinović Entrep. Aronica, Jagodina	RS215	Jagodina	hazelnut, apricot, plum, raspberry, blackberry, strawberry	4–5 (small)	cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
48	Monastery Studenica, Brezova	RS217	Kraljevo	pumpkin	5–6 (small)	foods
49	Vladejić Ltd., Dušanovac	RS221	Negotin	hazelnut	18–20 (medium)	foods, cosmetics
50	Agricultural holding Živanović, Mali Izvor, production facility Bor	RS223	Zaječar	pumpkin, walnut, hazelnut, almond, sesame, peanut	10–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics
51	Tatjana Ratković Entrep. Master Life Tid, Leskovac	RS224	Leskovac	flax, sesame, apricot, rosehip, black cumin, coconut, argan	6–8 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
52	Jovana Milutinović Entrep. Promontis, Vilandrica	RS225	Gadžin Han	apricot, plum	3–5 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
53	Beyond Ltd., Niš	RS225	Niš	pumpkin, sesame, flax, coconut, black cumin	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
54	Vladan Stanojević Entrep. Biser, Markovac	RS227	Velika Plana	sunflower	450–550 (large)	foods
55	Pharmanais Ltd., Babušnica	RS228	Babušnica	sunflower, almond, rosehip, apricot	12–15 (small)	foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals

¹ RS1 Serbia—North; RS11 Belgrade Region—RS110 Belgrade Area; RS12 Vojvodina Region—RS121 West Bačka District, RS122 South Banat District, RS123 South Bačka District, RS124 North Banat District, RS125 North Bačka District, RS126 Central Banat District, RS127 Srem District; ² RS2 Serbia—South; RS21 Region of Šumadija and Western Serbia—RS211 Zlatibor District, RS214 Moravica District, RS215 Pomoravlje District, RS217 Raška District; RS22 Region of Southern and Eastern Serbia—RS221 Bor District, RS223 Zaječar District, RS224 Jablanica District, RS225 Nišava District, RS227 Podunavlje District, RS228 Pčinja District; ³ Producers of cold-pressed oils can be divided into three categories based on the size of the facility: (a) small artisanal facilities, ≤15 tons of raw material per year, (b) medium-sized facilities, >15 to ≤100 tons of raw material per year, and (c) large facilities, >100 tons of raw material per year. Based on data collected from producers, the classification considered typical equipment (screw presses) and operating regimes: (a) small artisanal facilities have equipment capacity of 20 to 50 kg/h and operate 4 to 6 h per day, mostly seasonally, (b) medium-sized facilities have equipment capacity of 80 to 150 kg/h and operate 6 to 8 h per day, mostly 200 to 250 days per year, and (c) large facilities have equipment capacity of 200 to 500 kg/h and operate 8 to 16 h per day, mostly 250 to 300 days per year. Medium and large facilities use multiple screw presses in operation. Data for the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija are not available.

and Figure 1.

Data are classified according to regions consistent with the NUTS 2024 classification, enabling clear visualization of the geographic distribution of production. The data in Table 1 indicate that most producers fall into the category of small artisanal facilities (≤15 tons of raw material per year), which form the backbone of domestic cold-pressed oil production. These facilities typically operate seasonally, with fewer daily working hours and limited press capacities (20–50 kg/h), making them suitable for local markets and a “zero-kilometer” distribution approach. Such producers often offer a wide range of oils—from sunflower and pumpkin seed oils to specialty oils (rosehip, argan, hemp)—enabling supply not only to the food sector but also to cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Medium-sized (15–100 t/year) and large (>100 t/year) facilities, although fewer in number, are mainly concentrated in Vojvodina and central Serbia. These units operate multiple screw presses with higher capacities (80–500 kg/h) and work nearly year-round, ensuring stable market supply and export potential. They primarily process mass oilseeds such as sunflower and soybean, whereas smaller facilities more often process pumpkin seeds, flax, sesame, nuts, and fruit kernels, contributing to product diversity.

Geographically, Vojvodina is clearly identified as the central cluster of production, particularly the West Bačka and South Bačka districts, thanks to its well-developed agriculture and raw material availability. The Belgrade region hosts a significant number of smaller, specialized producers focusing on premium and multifunctional oils. Southern and Eastern Serbia exhibit a sparser distribution of facilities, primarily oriented towards specific raw materials and value-added products, often targeting niche markets. This database highlights not only production capacities but also the potential for the development of green screw press technologies and the enhancement of the “zero-kilometer” supply chain. It emphasizes that small producers can play a key role in preserving biodiversity of raw materials, promoting local varieties, and sustainable processing, while larger facilities ensure supply continuity and competitiveness in broader markets.

2.3. Raw Materials in Cold-Pressed Oil Production

The analysis of dominant raw materials, shown in Figure 2, reveals significant diversity in cold-pressed oil production in Serbia, alongside a clear dominance of several oilseed and nut types. The most prevalent raw material is pumpkin seed, used by 30 producers, reflecting a long tradition, raw material availability, and recognized nutritional and market value of pumpkin seed oil. The high share of pumpkin seeds in the raw material structure is also linked to smaller seasonal facilities, as this oilseed does not require continuous year-round processing and is well-suited for local supply chains within the “zero-kilometer” concept.

Sesame (21 producers), hazelnut (20), and sunflower (19) follow as raw materials with strong presence. While sesame is recognized for its high-value oils in both food and cosmetic industries, hazelnut oils primarily belong to premium assortments, often targeting narrowly specialized markets. Sunflower seeds, although dominant in industrial oil production, here mainly appear in small and medium-sized facilities, often combined with other raw materials, imparting specific sensory and nutritional characteristics to the oils. Flaxseed (19 producers) shares the fourth place in prevalence, reflecting the growing demand for omega-3 fatty acids and functional food products. Among specialized raw materials, almond (14), poppy seed (10), rosehip (9), and apricot kernels (8) stand out, generally processed in smaller batches and used in cosmetic and pharmaceutical sectors. Less common but still market-recognized raw materials include walnut (6), industrial hemp (5), plum (4), black cumin (4), raspberry seeds (3), coconut (3), grape seeds (3), blackberry seeds (3), and cornelian cherry (2). More exotic and import-dependent raw materials such as jojoba (2) and argan (2) are found exclusively among producers oriented toward cosmetic and dermocosmetic markets. The least represented raw materials—castor (1), peanut (1), and wheat germ (1)—indicate the presence of experimental or highly specialized productions, often aimed at very specific consumer groups. This raw material structure indicates that cold-pressed oil production in Serbia combines traditional crops (pumpkin, sunflower, flax) with high-value raw materials for niche markets, thereby achieving product diversification, reducing market risks, and opening avenues for innovation in the green technology sector of screw press oil production.

3. Technology Behind Cold Pressing

Among the available oil extraction techniques, cold pressing is considered the most sustainable method, as it avoids the use of chemical solvents and reduces energy consumption compared to other industrial extraction processes [20,28]. In the production process of cold-pressed oil, illustrated in Figure 3a,b, raw material preparation (seeds, fruits, or their parts) represents one of the most critical steps, as it directly affects the quality and stability of the final product. Prior to extraction, plant raw material is carefully cleaned, dried, and—depending on the type—partially or completely dehulled. This is followed by mechanical size-reduction operations such as crushing and/or grinding, ensuring optimal texture for efficient oil pressing using a screw press [15,29,30]. The extraction yields crude oil and a solid by-product known as cold-pressed cake. Immediately after pressing, the crude oil contains suspended particles, moisture, and mucilaginous substances that can adversely affect its clarity and oxidative stability. Therefore, sedimentation (settling) is an essential post-pressing step in which heavier impurities gradually settle at the bottom of the tank, while the clarified oil layer is separated and transferred to another vessel. The efficiency of this process depends mainly on temperature, storage time, and particle size, and it can be accelerated by gentle heating and by maintaining the process under an inert gas atmosphere to prevent oxidation. Well-conducted sedimentation improves oil transparency and reduces the load on subsequent filtration units, thereby contributing to the production of stable and high-quality cold-pressed oils. Sedimentation is followed by filtration, after which the filtered oil is stored in crude-oil tanks under controlled conditions. Only physical treatments are permitted in the production of cold-pressed oils—sedimentation, filtration, centrifugation, and water washing [31,32]—while the addition of any additives is strictly prohibited [30]. Cold-pressed oil retains the characteristic properties of its raw material, and its chemical composition and sensory attributes largely depend on both the quality of raw material preparation and the pressing conditions [33,34,35,36].

Screw presses are continuous presses consisting of (Figure 3c): a horizontal screw, a barrel surrounding the screw, a feeding and dosing device, a nozzle for adjusting cake thickness, a gear transmission, and a press housing [37]. In screw presses, oil is separated by forcing the material from a larger into a smaller enclosed space, resulting in compression of the material and a subsequent increase in pressure, which leads to “squeezing” the oil out [38,39]. Due to high friction within the material, a temperature rise is inevitable [40]. Typical operating temperatures of high-capacity industrial presses are around 100 °C. In cold-pressed oil production, however, the outlet oil temperature should not exceed 50 °C [18]. To achieve this, presses of special design must be used, or pressing must be carried out at lower pressures, which results in a lower oil yield [41]. Despite being classified as a cold extraction method, mechanical friction can cause localized temperature spikes exceeding 70 °C, depending on pressing conditions [21]. Studies indicate that temperatures above 50–60 °C can compromise oil quality, leading to oxidation, hydrolysis, and degradation of key bioactive compounds [42]. The most important factors affecting pressing efficiency include [37]:

• Type and characteristics of the raw material;
• Preparation of the material for pressing: particle size distribution, residual hull content;
• Screw press design and power;
• Pressing parameters: pressure, temperature, process duration, moisture content of feed material, oil content in the cake, etc.

Numerous studies have confirmed that these factors significantly influence both oil yield and the quality of the final product. Heriawan et al. (2018) [43] investigated four types of screw presses and two types of filters for oil extraction from Calophyllum inophillum L. seeds, concluding that process optimization is essential, as seed type significantly affects yield. Lužaić et al. (2021) [15] analyzed sunflower seed cold pressing and reported yields ranging from 20.10% in edible hybrids to as high as 75.61% in oilseed hybrids. Crimaldi et al. (2017) [44], using a 2.2 kW screw press, studied the influence of temperature (50 and 70 °C), screw rotation speed (22 and 32 rpm), and seed pre-treatment in tobacco seeds. The highest yield (73.38 ± 0.31%) was achieved at 70 °C and 32 rpm. Gikuru and Lamech (2007) [45] examined the influence of compression ratio and duration of applied force on soybean oil yield, showing that increasing these parameters positively affects yield, with an optimal temperature limit that should not be exceeded. A linear relationship between yield and both force intensity and pressing time was also observed.

In addition to yield, the literature devotes considerable attention to the impact of process parameters on oil quality and the content of bioactive compounds, as these determine the nutritional and functional value of the final product. Dalgıç et al. (2011) [46] studied the effect of roasting Pistacia terebinthus seeds at 100, 120, and 140 °C on the characteristics of cold-pressed oil. They found that higher temperatures increased tocopherol content (α, β, γ), total phenolics, carotenoids, palmitic and palmitoleic acids, but also increased acidity, peroxide value, and conjugated diene and triene contents—highlighting the trade-off between yield and quality. Rabadán et al. (2018) [47] analyzed the influence of heating-ring temperature (50–200 °C) and screw speed (17, 49, and 96 rpm) on outlet oil temperature when pressing almonds, walnuts, and peanuts. Higher screw speeds were shown to reduce oil exposure to elevated temperatures, thereby preserving functional properties. Rombaut et al. (2015) [48] investigated the effect of die diameter, preheating temperature, and screw speed (20–110 rpm) on grape seed oil extraction, noting that harvest and storage time of the raw material greatly affect total phenolic retention. By combining appropriate process parameters, both yield and phenolic content can be improved, whereas higher seed moisture content negatively affects both metrics.

As shown in

Table 2. Parameters for setting the screw press provided as recommendations from the screw press manufacturer Elektro motor—Šimon, Senta for the model SPU-40 for various raw materials.

Pressing Material	Nozzle Diameter (mm)	Heating Temperature (°C)	The Frequency of Screw Rotation (Hz)
Dehulled sunflower seed	5–8	60–80	40–60
Pumpkin seed	6–8	80–100	20–30
Sesame	10–12	80–100	20–30
Flaxseed	10–12	140–150	40–50
Poppy	6–8	60–80	40–60
Industrial hemp seed	6–8	80–100	40–50
Soybean	8–12	180–200	40–50
Caraway, pomegranate seeds	8–10	80–100	40–60
Thistle seed	6–8	80–100	40–60
Grape seed	10–12	100–120	30–40
Walnut, hazelnut kernel	8–10	80–100	40–60
Almond, apricot kernel, peanut	6–8	80–100	40–60

, operating parameters during oil pressing vary considerably depending on the oilseed species used as raw material. These data confirm that there is no single, universal solution for optimal oil extraction from different plant materials. On the contrary, each raw material requires specifically defined and adjusted process parameters to achieve maximum yield while preserving oil quality [18,49]. Recommended values for press die diameter, heating temperature, and screw rotation frequency clearly demonstrate the importance of individual physicochemical and structural characteristics of seeds in shaping the technological process. For example, flaxseed requires considerably higher press heating temperatures (140–150 °C) compared to sunflower [15] or pumpkin seed, indicating a more compact cell wall structure and the need for more intensive mechanical and thermal treatment to release the oil [50]. Conversely, sesame and pumpkin seeds require lower temperatures and slower screw speeds [51], reflecting their greater mechanical sensitivity and lower thermal degradation threshold for oil quality [52].

These recommendations, originating directly from domestic equipment manufacturers, are particularly valuable for small and medium-sized producers in Serbia, who in most cases do not have access to sophisticated devices for automatic process control and optimization. In this context, clearly defined processing parameters for different raw materials can significantly contribute to the standardization of production, reductions in energy and material losses, and preservation of the functional and nutritional properties of the oil [18,37]. Moreover, such technical guidelines represent an important step toward the professionalization of small oil mills, which form the backbone of local processing and the cold-pressed oil market in Serbia. Their implementation can support greater production stability, improved quality control, and increased competitiveness both in domestic and international markets, especially in the functional food and value-added natural product sectors [53].

The data presented in

Table 3. Specification of selected screw presses present on the market.

Model	Country	Seed Capacity	Engine Power	Voltage	Dimensions (L × W × H)	Weight	Producer or Seller	Price	Photo
KernKraft KK Oil prince F Universal	Germany	up to 15 kg/h	2.2 kW	400 V|3-phase	950 × 465 × 510 mm	80 kg	https://cms.oelpresse.de/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	4300 €
KernKraft KK 20 F Universal	Germany	up to 20 kg/h	2.2 kW	230 V|1-phase 400 V|3-phase 230 V|3-phase	480 × 480 × 620 mm	135 kg	https://cms.oelpresse.de/ (accessed on 24 August 2025.)	5900 €
KernKraft KK 40 F Universal	Germany	up to 40 kg/h	3 kW	230 V|1-phase 400 V|3-phase 230 V|3-phase	550 × 475 × 630 mm	200 kg	https://cms.oelpresse.de/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	7900 €
Reinartz AP 08	Germany	30–40 kg/h	4 kW	/	1800 × 500 × 800 mm	400 kg	https://www.reinartz.de/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	6100 €
Keller KEK-P0020 screw press	Germany	20 kg/h	1.5 kW	/	1500 × 810 × 700 mm	152 kg	https://www.keller-kek.de/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	3100 €
AgOil M70 Oil Press	USA	12.5–24 kg/h	/	220 V	2235 × 1499 × 1118 inches	80 kg	http://www.agoilpress.com/images/dealers/-OilPress-Brochure.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2025.)	8450 €
YZYX70	China	50 kg/h	4 kW	380 V	1090 × 405 × 806 mm	195 kg	https://www.honest-industrial.com/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	1250 €
YZYX90	China	125 kg/h	5.5 kw	380 V	1200 × 550 × 1000 mm	285 kg	https://www.honest-industrial.com/ (accessed on 23 August 2025.)	1400 €
Mikron SZR	Serbia	25–30 kg/h	2.2 kW	380 V|3-phase	1300 × 800 × 1200 mm	105 kg	https://mikronszr.com/?page_id=33&lang=sr (accessed on 25 August 2025.)	2900 €
Elekro motor—Šimon, SPU-40	Serbia	10–40 kg	2.2 kW	380 V|3-phase	1012 × 559 × 824 mm	95 kg	https://elektromotor-simon.com/ (accessed on 25 August 2025.)	2700 €

offer a comprehensive overview of currently available technical solutions for cold-pressing processes on the market, both internationally and domestically. Information was collected through systematic review of manufacturers’ and vendors’ websites, with certain details—such as pricing—obtained through direct communication. Analysis of the selected models reveals a broad range of working capacities (from 15 to 125 kg/h), motor power, dimensions, energy sources, and market prices. This diversity allows producers, particularly small and medium-scale processors, to choose equipment according to their specific needs, spatial constraints, production volumes, and available budgets. For instance, the KernKraft KK 40 F Universal press from Germany offers a high degree of flexibility, with a capacity of up to 40 kg/h and dual power supply options (single-phase and three-phase), making it suitable for diverse production environments. Its robust construction and technical reliability frequently place it within the premium equipment segment, ideal for producers aiming for stable and long-term sustainable operations. In contrast, models such as the Chinese-made YZYX90 offer significantly higher processing capacity (up to 125 kg/h) at a fraction of the cost, making them an attractive solution for producers with limited initial investments or those aiming for rapid capacity scaling. However, lower cost often entails trade-offs—including limited access to technical documentation, slower spare part delivery, lack of local service, and language barriers that may hinder optimal usage and maintenance of the equipment [29]. In this context, domestic cold-press equipment manufacturers such as Elektro motor—Šimon from Senta and MIKRON SZR from Temerin present a significant competitive advantage for local processors. Their presses are generally tailored to the specific characteristics of oilseeds commonly used in the Serbian market, as well as to the technical conditions prevalent in small- and medium-scale processing facilities. An additional advantage is the possibility of direct communication with the manufacturer, fast availability of spare parts, and operator training in the native language, all of which significantly enhance the efficiency and reliability of the production process. Beyond technical and economic aspects, the choice of press has broader implications for business sustainability—including energy efficiency, oil quality, extraction yield, and waste generation. Therefore, proper equipment selection is not merely a technical matter but a strategic decision that directly affects the competitiveness and market positioning of cold-pressed oil producers.

4. Cold Pressing as a Green Technology

Cold pressing represents a sustainable and environmentally friendly oil extraction method from plant materials, increasingly recognized as part of the so-called “green technologies” in the food industry [54,55,56,57]. This process contributes to energy conservation and the retention of nutritional and bioactive compounds while minimizing waste generation [19]. As such, cold pressing has emerged as a desirable alternative to solvent-based extraction methods, aligning with contemporary consumer demands for safe and natural food products [54,55,56].

Unlike conventional extraction techniques that often involve organic solvents and elevated temperatures, cold pressing operates without the use of chemicals and under temperature conditions that prevent degradation of thermolabile compounds [58,59]. This allows for the preservation of key bioactive components such as tocopherols, polyphenols, and phytosterols, which exhibit antioxidant and functional properties [60,61,62,63], with applications not only in food, but also in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries [64]. In addition, these natural biologically active components improve the oxidative stability of the oil [60,61]. Furthermore, the absence of chemical solvents eliminates the need for their removal from the final product and eliminates risks of contamination, ensuring both product safety and environmental protection [19]. Cold-pressed oils are therefore compliant with growing demands for natural and clean-label food products. At the industrial level, the advantages of cold pressing include lower energy consumption, reduced environmental footprint, and comparatively low capital investment. The process requires relatively little energy input, as it proceeds without preheating or complex downstream processing steps [65,66], which further enhances its sustainability and classifies it among low-carbon technologies. In addition, due to the absence of toxic solvents, the process does not generate wastewater, contributing to a safer working environment.

One of the main limitations of mechanical oil recovery via cold pressing is its relatively low extraction efficiency and variability in product quality [67]. Residual oil content in the press cake may range from 8% to 14% [68]. Moreover, cold-pressed oils are often rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, which can compromise oxidative stability. They also tend to contain higher amounts of pro-oxidant compounds, resulting in a shorter shelf life compared to refined oils [69,70].

Importantly, cold pressing generates minimal process waste, which contributes to its economic feasibility. The residual press cake, rich in fibers, proteins, and remaining oil, has numerous potential applications in animal feed and food industries—as protein isolates, concentrates, hydrolysates, antioxidants, dietary fibers, enzymes, biosurfactants—as well as in mushroom cultivation, biopolymer packaging, and biofuel production [71,72]. A variety of studies have evaluated the characteristics of press cake from different oilseeds, with a summary of recent findings presented in

Table 4. Literature review of by-products in the production of cold-pressed oils and their applications.

Raw Material	Functional Component	Content	Application	Source
rapeseed	fiber	38.0 ± 1.22%	functional components for enriching food products	[73]
sesame	lignan	1.26–1.35%	lignan-rich sesame oil	[74]
rapeseed	proteins	7.5–27.5%	functional food ingredients	[75]
hemp seed	phosphates	5.53 ± 0.67 mg/g on dry matter	frankfurter production	[76]
flaxseed	protein	36.18%	fermenting with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum to increase its application as food ingredient	[77]
	phenolic components	3.56 ± 0.09 mg GAE/g
canola	phenolic compounds	3.8–5 mg GAE/g	for food applications	[78]
canola	protein	37.83 ± 2.47% on dry matter	heat-induced pressed gels for product alone and for a micro-structured protein extract	[79]
sunflower	unsaturated fatty acids	42.49%	ewe feeding, for better milk fatty acid profile and curd sensory properties	[80]
rapeseed		36.16%
plum	protein	93.61 ± 0.21% in protein isolate	with addition of caffeic acid for production of bioactive emulsifier	[81]
camelina	protein	/	biopolymer films	[82]
hull-less pumpkin	protein	/	pouches for flaxseed oil protection	[83]
rapeseed	protein	65 ± 2% in sediment on dry matter	emulsifier production	[84]
sunflower	whole cake	/	fermenting with Bacillus subtilis for Biosurfactant (Surfactin) production	[85]
rapeseed
flaxseed	polyphenols	14.76 ± 0.37 mg catechin/g on dry matter	production of muffins enriched with flax cake	[86]

.

Particularly notable is the high protein content, often exceeding 30% of dry matter, making these protein fractions suitable for use as concentrates, isolates, hydrolysates, or structurally functionalized extracts in human nutrition, animal feed, functional food formulations, emulsifiers, and biofilms. For example, the high protein value of rapeseed and flaxseed cakes, along with their technological functionality (e.g., gelling, emulsification), supports their use as added-value functional ingredients [79,84,86]. The presence of polyphenolic components, especially in flaxseed and rapeseed cakes, further enhances their antioxidant potential, offering opportunities for application as natural additives in functional and clean-label foods [78,86]. These compounds not only prolong shelf life but also improve the health profile of final products, aligning with current nutritional trends.

An innovative valorization pathway for press cakes lies in their use as substrates for fermentation. Recent focus has been placed on biotechnological production of biosurfactants—particularly surfactin—using press cakes as low-cost alternatives to conventional nutrient media [87]. Studies have demonstrated that sunflower and rapeseed press cakes, owing to their protein and residual oil content, effectively support the growth of Bacillus subtilis and biosurfactant synthesis [85]. Key nutritional contributors in this process include proteins (as nitrogen sources) and residual lipids (as carbon sources and precursors for lipopeptide synthesis). This approach not only reduces production costs but also improves the ecological sustainability of the overall process.

Another promising application involves the use of press cake-derived proteins for biopolymer production. For example, proteins extracted from camelina and pumpkin seed cakes have been used to develop biodegradable films and oil packaging materials with good barrier and antioxidant properties [82,83]. This positions cold pressing as an entry point in an integrated biorefinery concept, where all components of the raw material—oil, press cake, and sediment—are utilized in a value-added production chain. The effective utilization of by-products would be greatly enhanced through detailed industrial-scale characterization of raw materials and press cakes, including nutritional profiling, antinutritional factors, microbiological safety, and physicochemical properties. Establishing such quality standards is critical for safe and consistent application across various industries. Overall, the literature clearly indicates that cold-pressing by-products should no longer be treated as waste but rather as high-value raw materials with significant application potential [72]. Their use enhances not only the economic viability of production but also reduces its environmental impact, in line with the principles of green chemistry and circular economy [88].

5. Market Trends and Potential

Over the past decade, there has been a growing global demand for cold-pressed plant oils, a trend that is also increasingly evident in Serbia. According to Future Market Insights, the global cold-pressed oil market is projected to expand from USD 24.6 billion in 2025 to USD 40.5 billion by 2035, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 5.1%. These oils are highly valued for their elevated levels of bioactive compounds such as tocopherols, phytosterols, polyphenols, and carotenoids, which are better preserved compared to refined oils, as mentioned previously. The rising consumer preference for natural, minimally processed, and vegan products [89] further fuels the market growth.

In Serbia, consumers are increasingly recognizing the value of unrefined oils derived from sunflower, pumpkin, flax, and sesame seeds. The concept of “zero-kilometer food,” which emphasizes local production and short supply chains, aligns seamlessly with the practices of small-scale cold-pressed oil producers. These oils are commonly sold through farmers’ markets, health food stores, and direct-to-consumer channels, ensuring freshness, traceability, and transparency.

Cold-pressed oils are subject to national food safety regulations and labeling requirements. In Serbia, these products are regulated by the Rulebook on the Quality and Other Requirements for Edible Vegetable Oils and Fats, Margarine and Related Products (2006) [90], as well as the Food Safety Law (2009) [91], Regulation on Maximum Concentrations of Certain Contaminants in Food (2024) [92] and Regulation on Maximum Residue Levels of Plant Protection Products in Food and Feed (2022) [93] which mandate clear disclosure of production method, origin, composition, and the absence of additives or solvents, maximum permitted concentrations of contaminants and residues of plant protection products. As cold-pressed oils are often positioned as premium products, accurate and transparent labeling is critical for building consumer trust. Nonetheless, inconsistencies in the use of terms such as “virgin,” “unrefined,” and “natural,” along with weak enforcement, remain a challenge in the Serbian market.

At the EU level, general food law [94], food hygiene requirements [95], and microbiological criteria for foodstuffs [96] form the foundation of food safety legislation, preceding Codex Alimentarius (1999) [31] guidelines and Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 [97] on the provision of food information to consumers. For small Serbian producers aiming to export to the EU, alignment with these regulations is essential.

Serbia holds considerable export potential in the segment of high-quality cold-pressed oils [98]. Favorable agroecological conditions for oilseed cultivation and the widespread use of screw presses in small-scale facilities provide a solid foundation for developing the export sector. Several domestic producers are already exporting to neighboring markets such as Slovenia, Croatia, and Hungary, while interest from Western European buyers is growing. Nevertheless, international expansion remains constrained by several factors: inconsistent product quality, lack of certification (e.g., organic, non-GMO), weak branding, and limited access to distribution channels. Further investment is required in quality assurance, process standardization, and marketing strategies to fully capitalize on Serbia’s cold-pressed oil potential abroad.

E-commerce, including the sale of cold-pressed oils, has grown significantly, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic [99], which shifted consumer behavior toward direct purchasing from producers via websites, social media, and specialized platforms for healthy foods. Online sales allow small producers to bypass conventional distribution channels and communicate directly with consumers, reducing costs while offering space to highlight unique product features such as seed origin, pressing method, and safety certifications. However, success in e-commerce demands investment in visual identity, packaging quality, logistics, and customer service [100,101,102]. Producers of cold-pressed oils in Serbia have adapted to this global trend.

Cold-pressed oils are positioned in the market as premium products, priced significantly higher than industrially refined oils. The Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia does not track retail prices of cold-pressed oils. However, in its April 2025 bulletin, the average price of refined sunflower oil was reported at 187.34 RSD/L–1.59 €/L [103]. In contrast, cold-pressed sunflower and pumpkin seed oils sell for 7–15 €/L, while walnut, hazelnut, flaxseed, and hemp oils can reach 17–42 €/L, depending on raw material type, seasonality, packaging, and retail channel. On EU markets, regionally produced cold-pressed oils command prices of €10–€20 per 250–500 mL bottle, particularly if they carry organic, geographical indication, or artisanal production labels. The premium price of cold-pressed oils is justified by consumers primarily through their nutritional and functional qualities. Beyond health benefits, consumers also value product authenticity, raw material provenance, small-scale production practices, and sustainable manufacturing practices—especially within the context of “zero-kilometer” food systems.

6. Conclusions

This review demonstrates that Serbia’s cold-pressed oil sector is diverse, regionally distinctive, and technologically adaptable, with small-scale artisanal mills forming the backbone of production. The mapping identified 55 producers, of which over 60% operate with limited seasonal capacities and target both food and non-food markets, including cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Vojvodina emerged as the primary production hub, particularly the West Bačka and South Bačka districts, owing to favorable agricultural conditions and raw material availability. Smaller facilities frequently process specialty seeds such as pumpkin, sesame, and hazelnut, contributing to biodiversity preservation and product diversification, while larger plants ensure year-round supply and export potential through processing mass oilseeds like sunflower and soybean. In addition, the review of cold-pressing machines available on the market highlights the range of technical solutions accessible to producers and emphasizes the importance of selecting equipment that aligns with production scale, seed type, and sustainability goals. The integration of zero-kilometer concepts and green screw press technologies positions the sector well for alignment with EU sustainability criteria. Importantly, this study represents the first systematic national-level mapping and engineering assessment of small-scale cold-pressing facilities in Serbia, providing a foundation for future international comparisons and benchmarking. The collected data on producers, processed raw materials, and pressing technologies not only addresses a critical knowledge gap in the national context but also offers insights applicable to small-scale oil production across Europe. The absence of a systematic registry of production capacities highlights the need for future research focused on establishing a national database of small-scale cold-pressed oil producers, advancing technological assessment of pressing equipment, and innovating processing methods tailored to specific oilseeds. These actions would strengthen Serbia’s competitiveness in domestic and international markets and provide a solid foundation for future comparative studies at the European and global level.