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Article

One-Part Alkali-Activated Binder Produced from Tungsten-Molybdenum (W-Mo) Tailings

by
Georgy Lazorenko
1,*,
Yanshuai Wang
2,
Alexandr Fedotov
1 and
Anton Kasprzhitskii
1
1
Climate Center, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogov Street, 2, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia
2
Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Durability for Marine Civil Engineering, Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Low Carbon Construction Material and Technology, College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Eng 2024, 5(4), 3148-3160; https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5040165
Submission received: 14 October 2024 / Revised: 25 November 2024 / Accepted: 26 November 2024 / Published: 29 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Engineering for Sustainable Development 2024)
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Abstract

This study explores the feasibility of preparing a one-part alkali-activated binder produced from tungsten-molybdenum (W-Mo) tailings with sodium metasilicate (SM). A series of alkali-activated mortar samples were prepared, and the effects of the water/binder (W/B) ratio and mixture proportion on mechanical properties were investigated. Additionally, the microstructure and composition of the alkali-activated W-Mo tailings were characterized by using a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy techniques. Optimal results were achieved with a W/B ratio of 0.35 and a formulation containing 20% by weight of SM. Under these conditions, the cured samples exhibited an unconfined compressive strength of 11.2 MPa and a bulk density of 1726 kg/m3 after 28 days. The findings show the potential to advance tungsten-molybdenum mine waste upcycling and contribute to the production of environmentally sustainable building materials.

1. Introduction

Tungsten (W) and molybdenum (Mo) are technically critical to alloying agents or components of iron, steel, and non-ferrous alloys with good high-temperature strength, high wear resistance, and corrosion resistance [1,2,3], as well as being critical in many chemical applications, including catalysts [4], pigments [5], and lubricants [6]. The world annual production of W and Mo in all their forms in 2022 was about 333 thousand tons [7]. The total reserves of tungsten and molybdenum worldwide are estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey to be 19.4 million metric tons, and many of them are concentrated in China, Peru, Chile, Russia, Australia, and the United States [7]. The extraction and processing of tungsten and molybdenum ores after the removal of valuable components lead to the formation of numerous tailings. On average, the production of one ton of W concentrate results in the formation of 7–10 tons of tailings [8]. The predominant method of tungsten–molybdenum tailings (TMTs) disposal is dumping in large tailings ponds. Long-term storage of TMTs contributes to significant changes in their mineral and geochemical composition, increasing the migration ability of various pollutants [9]. As a result, stored TMTs are a source of negative impact on the ecosystems of the adjacent territories, including soils [10], groundwater and surface water [11], and the atmosphere [12]. Consequently, reasonable utilization of TMTs has the potential not only to reduce the associated environmental risks, but also to provide economic benefits.
The problem with the utilization of tungsten–molybdenum tailings is the subject of a number of works offering various treatment and management strategies. Known approaches include the use of TMTs as raw material for the production of ceramics [13,14] and glasses [15]. The high content of SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and Fe2O3 in tungsten and molybdenum tailings allows their use as precursors for cementitious binders [16]. Choi et al. [17] reported the use of tailings from tungsten mine waste and ground granulated blast-furnace slag as substitution materials for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) at a level of replacement varying from 0% to 45%. Although the incorporation of W tailings in mortar mixes contributed to a decrease in flowability and compressive strength, the authors noted the possibility of achieving acceptable fresh and hardened state properties within 10% of content by mass. The microstructure and mechanical behavior of cementitious tailings-crushed rock backfill containing tungsten mine tailings and crushed rock (cement/tailings ratio of 1:4, 1:6, and 1:8) were investigated by Huang et al. [18]. The optimum unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of tungsten tailings backfills reached 1.36 MPa for a crushed rock of 10%. Meanwhile, W tailings-based backfills were characterized by high sensitivity to crushed rock gradation and showed swelling and crushing leading to complete destruction. Luo et al. [19] successfully prepared concrete from molybdenum tailings and coal fly ash with five replacement levels (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%), and the main phases in the composite cementitious materials were C-S-H gels and ettringite.
The climate agenda prompting the search for low-carbon alternatives to OPC and conventional concrete has stimulated work on the use of mine tailings, including TMTs, as a precursor or aggregate for alkali-activated and related geopolymer materials [20,21]. Pacheco-Torgal et al. [22,23,24] reported the preparation and characterization of geopolymeric binders based on a mixture of Ca(OH)2 and tungsten mine waste mud with NaOH and waterglass solutions. Investigating the effects of formulation factors including aggregate type, aggregate/binder ratio, NaOH concentration, H2O/Na2O molar ratio, and calcium hydroxide content, the authors observed the highest compressive strength of 85.5 MPa. Increasing alkali concentration contributed to the increase in mechanical properties, which is in agreement with the observations of Li et al. [25]. However, the unconfined compressive strength decreases slightly when the alkali-solid ratio reaches 12% [25]. The good adhesive performance of the geopolymeric binders produced from tungsten mine waste [26] makes them potentially attractive from the point of view of their use as a repair material of OPC concrete. At the same time, tungsten mine waste mud activated by the solution NaOH with SM is characterized by low water resistance, showing a significant decrease in UCS occurring after 24 h of immersion in water as noted by Silva et al. [27]. The effect of temperature calcination of mine waste mud mixed with sodium carbonate on the mechanical properties of alkali-activated mortars was investigated by Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali [28]. In the range of 450–1100 °C, the compressive strength of the considered mortars reached a maximum at a calcination temperature of 950 °C; it was about 40 MPa at the age of 28 days. However, alkali-activated mortars based on mine waste mud calcined with sodium carbonate were not characterized by a stable structural condition due to an ineffective chemical combination.
The fabrication of conventional (two-part) alkali-activated materials (AAMs) involves mixing an aluminosilicate precursor with a pre-prepared aqueous solution of an activator based on sodium or potassium hydroxides and alkali silicates, which is unsafe due to its chemical hazardousness and which is inconvenient in terms of transportation and production under real conditions. Mitigation of these disadvantages is offered by one-part technology that involves the addition of water to the mixture of a solid precursor with a solid alkali-activator (‘just add water’ concept) to initiate the reaction [29,30]. However, the feasibility of this approach for tungsten–molybdenum tailings has not been sufficiently evaluated yet.
Herein, the purpose of this study is to explore the feasibility of preparing one-part alkali-activated binder produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings with sodium metasilicate. A series of alkali-activated mortar samples was prepared, and the effects of water-to-binder ratio (W/B) and mixture proportion on mechanical properties were investigated. Additionally, the microstructure and composition of the alkali-activated W-Mo tailings were characterized by using a combination of SEM, XRD, and FTIR techniques. The findings have the potential to advance tungsten–molybdenum mine waste upcycling and contribute to the production of environmentally sustainable building materials.

2. Experimental Procedures

2.1. Materials

The tailing samples in a slurry form were collected from the pond in the Tyrnyauz area of the Kabardino–Balkaria Republic (North Caucasus, Russia) (Figure 1a), the capacity of which is 75 million m3 with an average content of W ~0.2 wt.% and Mo ~0.05 wt.%. After removing visible impurities in the form of plant inclusions, the tailing samples were dried at 60 °C for 24 h, and were crushed and sieved to a fraction ≤100 μm through a stainless-steel sieve using an Endecotts EFL 2000/1 (Endecotts Ltd., London, UK) vibrating shaker (Figure 1b). The resulting fine W-Mo tailings powder was used for further analysis of the microstructure, mineral, and chemical composition, as well as the preparation of mortar mixtures.
The morphology of TMTs was determined by using a Quattro S scanning electron microscope (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). As shown in Figure 2, the particles of tungsten–molybdenum tailings exhibit irregular shapes with sharp edges. The particle size distribution was determined by a Laska TD analyzer (Biomedical systems LLC, Saint Petersburg, Russia). The percentile values of the particle size are given in Figure 3a. The W-Mo tailings powder used in this study had a 1–100 µm particle size distribution and an average diameter (D50) of about 14 µm. The chemical composition of TMT was obtained using a micro-XRF spectrometer M4 TRONADO (Bruker, Bremen, Germany), and the results are shown in Figure 3b. The content of silica in the tailings is the highest (70.8 wt%), followed by alumina, potassium, iron, and calcium (cumulatively 22.7 wt%). Figure 3c presents the various mineral phases identified in the TMT using a D2 PHASER diffractometer (Bruker, Bremen, Germany). It can be seen that the main phases associated with the highest peaks were quartz, muscovite, clinochlore, albite, and calcite. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of the TMT (Figure 3d), obtained with FT-801 Spectrometer (Simex LLC, Moscow, Russia) corroborate the minerals and elemental composition detected in the XRF and XRD analyses. The FTIR spectra of the W-Mo tailings are characterized by an intense band at ~960 cm−1 and a weak band at ~798 cm−1 (Figure 3d), which arise from the Si-O stretching. The O–H vibrational modes of the hydroxyl groups in the TMT were observed at an absorption band of around 914 cm−1. The infrared band in the range of 1300–1550 cm−1 is attributable to the stretching of –CO3 and Ca–O bonds. Commercial sodium metasilicate (SM) in powder form was purchased from NPK Silex LLC (Asbest, Russia) and used as the solid alkali activator. The particle size of the solid activator was ≤500 μm as provided by the supplier. Distilled water was used to prepare mortar mixtures.

2.2. Mix Proportions and Mixing

As shown in Table 1, twelve mix proportions were designed to study the target effects on compressive strength and structural characteristics of an alkali-activated binder produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings. In this table, a code name with a format of AxTyWz is used to refer to each mixture, where x and y indicate the percentage of SM and tailings in the mortar, respectively. The symbol z refers to the water/binder ratio. For example, A10T90W35 indicates a mixture in which the mortar consists of 10 wt% SM and 90 wt% TMTs at 0.35 water/binder ratio. To assess the impact of recipe factors on the mechanical properties of alkali-activated mortars, accurate measurements of water, solid precursor, and solid activator were made and poured into a mixer for thorough blending. After mixing, the mixture was cast into 20 mm cubic molds. The specimens were sealed with thin plastic to prevent moisture loss and left to harden at 60 ± 2 °C for 6 h. After hardening, the specimens were demolded and cured at room temperature for 28 days before testing.
The total number of test series was ten, since specimens A10T90W45 and A10T90W55 exhibited significant cracking (Figure 4). The reason for the observed shrinkage cracks was poor mechanical properties at a low alkaline activator content and the influence of the water factor (water/binder ratio). Thus, these specimens were rejected and not used for further testing.

2.3. Testing Methods and Characterization

Based on Archimedes’ principle, the bulk density of alkali-activated mortars produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings was measured employing deionized water as the liquid medium. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) testing was performed using an ASIS-1 universal testing machine (Geotech LLC, Penza, Russia) following the protocol specified by the GOST 5802 [31]. The compressive strength of each mixture was determined as the arithmetic mean of the strength in a series of six tested specimens. SEM, XRD, and FTIR analyses were performed to characterize the reaction products and microstructure of the alkali-activated TMTs. The microstructural analysis of the fracture surface of specimens after the UCS test was performed on a FEI Teneo scanning electron microscope (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) at an accelerating voltage of 5 kV. After mechanical testing, the inner portion of broken specimen fragments were collected, dried, and ground for XRD and FTIR analyses. X-ray diffraction patterns for alkali-activated TMT were obtained using a D2 PHASER diffractometer (Bruker, Bremen, Germany) operating with Cu-Kα radiation. The angles were scanned over a 2θ range spanning from 5° to 50° (scan speed of 0.2°/min). Fourier transform infrared spectra of alkali-activated TMT in the region of 400–4000 cm−1 were recorded at room temperature using an FT-801 Spectrometer (Simex LLC, Novosibirsk, Russia). Each spectrum was averaged over 20 scans at a 4 cm−1 resolution.

3. Results

3.1. Bulk Density

Figure 5 displays the bulk density results of the one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings. An increase in bulk density of mortar mixtures was observed with a rise in SM content. Similar behavior was observed by Haruna et al. [32,33] and Xu et al. [34] using SM as an activator for the preparation of fly ash-based one-part alkali-activated binders.
A higher activator content facilitates the dissolution of the solid precursor, resulting in the formation of a compact structure of reaction products. The bulk density values are in the range of 1611–1760 kg/m3 at a water/binder ratio of 0.35. With increasing W/B ratio the opposite trend was observed. With increasing W/B ratio from 0.35 to 0.55, the bulk density of mortar mixtures gradually decreased by 8.3–12.1%, depending on the alkaline activator content. Higher water content leads to an increase in the fraction of free water that can be available for evaporation. Not only does this cause a sharp shrinkage of one-part alkali-activated mortar specimens, but also leads to an increase in pores and voids [35].

3.2. Unconfined Compressive Strength

The effects of water-to-binder ratio and mixture proportion of one-part alkali-activated mortar that had been produced from TMTs on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) are presented in Figure 6. A strong correlation between compressive strength and bulk density was observed (Figure 5). The minimum compressive strength (0.5 MPa) was observed for A10T90W35 containing 10 wt% SM at a W/B ratio of 0.35. At higher SM content, one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings exhibited compressive strength in the range from 3.4 MPa to 11.4 MPa at the age of 28 days. Increasing the activator content facilitated increased alkalinity and generated more hydration gels, which tends to fill the voids, thus leading to a more compact structure and higher UCS of the final product. This relationship between strength and density is characteristic of geopolymers and related alkali-activated materials and has been observed by previous researchers [36,37]. Increasing SM content above 20 wt% at a W/B ratio of 0.35 does not lead to a significant increase in compressive strength, which may be attributed to the achievement of optimal Na/Si and Na/Al ratios in the presence of sufficient water for dissolution and condensation reaction of silica and alumina [38]. An excessive dosage of alkaline activator (above 20 wt%) does not lead to further improvement in mechanical properties.
As the W/B ratio increased, there was a decrease in compressive strength. In the considered range of water/binder ratio (0.35–0.55), the UCS values of the mortar mixtures varied between 1.2 MPa and 3.4 MPa, 2.8 MPa and 11.2 MPa, and 8.1 MPa and 11.4 MPa for the specimens containing 15 wt%, 20 wt%, and 25 wt% alkaline activator, respectively. When the W/B ratio was less than 0.35, the consistency of the fresh mixture changed dramatically, which was manifested in an increase in viscosity and a decrease in workability, hindering its molding by casting. Summarizing the results of mechanical tests, it can be stated that A20T80W35, with an SM content of 20 wt% and a W/B ratio of 0.35, is the optimum design. It demonstrated workable fresh paste and compressive strength (11.2 MPa) comparable to A25T75W35. Thus, further detailed structural characterization was carried out for a series of one-part alkali-activated mortar specimens at 20 wt% SM with different water-to-binder ratios. The structural changes in mortar mixtures at a fixed W/B ratio, exhibiting the highest compressive strength, with different alkali-activator contents were also investigated (Section 3.3, Section 3.4 and Section 3.5).

3.3. Microstructure

The SEM images of different alkali-activated mortars at 28 days, taken at a magnification of 5000 times, are presented in Figure 7. The SEM images clearly show the presence of unreacted TMT particles with irregular prismatic shapes, the amount of which varies depending on the type of mortar mixtures.
The microstructures of the gels generated in the alkali-activated TMTs were affected by the SM content. The presence of more unreacted TMT particles in mixtures A10T90W35 and A15T85W35 (Figure 7a,b) can be related to the low solubility of the solid precursor caused by a low alkali content. Increasing the SM content favors the dissolution of the precursor, which leads to the formation of continuous thin-laminar and flake structures. The binding properties of the reaction products help to minimize and bind pores and voids in the matrix. As a result, a more uniform, denser and more compact microstructure is formed, which is another explanation for the higher mechanical properties of mixtures A20T80W35 and A25T75W35 containing 20 wt% and 25 wt% alkaline activator, respectively (Figure 7c,d). As shown in the SEM micrographs, due to the loss of excess free water during the curing process, samples A20T80W45 and A20T80W55 (Figure 7e,f) formed a less dense and more heterogeneous matrix, resulting in lower mechanical properties, as evidenced by UCS test results.

3.4. XRD Patterns

Figure 8 illustrates the XRD patterns of mortar mixtures with various water/binder ratios and SM content.
When analyzing the diffractograms of the one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings, it was discovered that alkaline activation mainly did not lead to the destruction of the framework of crystalline phases of minerals in the composition of the initial tailings, which follows from the preservation of the positions and intensities of the main peaks on the diffractogram, except for muscovite (KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2). Phases from tungsten–molybdenum tailings, i.e., quartz (SiO2), albite (NaAlSi3O8), and calcite (CaCO3), were barely participating in the reaction, as indicated by their intensity in all water/binder ratios and mixture proportions. The reactivity of quartz, albite, and calcite at alkali environment in AAMs is often reported to be low [39,40]. In contrast, muscovite displays the highest alkaline dissolution extents among aluminosilicate minerals [39] and can participate in alkali activation without any pretreatment [41]. As can be seen in Figure 8, as a result of alkaline activation of the TMTs, a slight decrease in the magnitude of crystal reflections characteristic of muscovite was observed. The lowest intensity of its peaks was observed in the diffractogram of A25T75W35 containing 25 wt% SM (Figure 8a), confirming the partial dissolution of muscovite with the formation of amorphous sodium aluminosilicate gels [42].

3.5. FTIR Spectra

Figure 9 shows the FTIR spectra of mortar mixtures with various water/binder ratio and SM content.
The absorption bands between 980 and 1020 cm−1 may be related to asymmetric stretching vibrations of Si-O-T (T is Si or Al) and could be attributed to the presence of the N-A-S-H and C-(A)-S-H gels [43,44,45] and minerals in the tailings. The absorption band around 1431 cm−1 corresponds to the vibrations of the O-C-O bonds CO32− groups from the carbonate-containing phases in the TMTs, such as calcite [46,47]. With increasing alkaline activator content, the intensity of this peak slightly increased, which may be related to the carbonation of AAMs in the curing process. The dissolution of SM powder and the reaction of the TMTs accumulated Si species, increasing bridging oxygen atoms, resulting in the shift of the Si-O-T asymmetric stretching vibration band from 995 cm−1 towards a higher wavenumber [44,46]. Thus, the observed shift of this absorption peak may indicate more formation of gel phases [43]. With an increasing W/B ratio, the intensity of the Si-O-T asymmetric stretching band decreased markedly, indicating gel structure changes caused by high initial water content. The participation of a large amount of water in the aluminosilicate network leads to a decrease in the degree of polymerization [48] and, as a consequence, to the formation of a less dense microstructure and lower compressive strength, which is confirmed by the results of mechanical tests and XRD and SEM analyses of structural properties.

4. Conclusions

This study investigated the feasibility of preparing a one-part alkali-activated binder produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings with sodium metasilicate. By examining the effects of water-to-binder ratio and mixture proportion on the structural and mechanical properties of alkali-activated TMTs, this study can draw the following conclusions.
(1) The bulk density of the alkali-activated mortar specimens varied in the range of 1467–1760 kg/m3 at 28 days, which is similar to the typical range of structural lightweight concrete. The density shows an increasing trend with increasing SM content. The bulk density of hardened mortar decreased as the W/B ratio increased.
(2) There is a strong correlation between compressive strength and bulk density. The 28-day compressive strength of the mortar specimens markedly increased with an increase in the SM content. The highest 28-day UCS of one-part alkali-activated mortar, using SM, reached 11.4 MPa at 25 wt%, but the strength growth at the higher SM content (relative to 20 wt% content of the solid activator) was small.
(3) SM and initial water content have a strong effect on the structural changes of the one-part AAMs studied here. The dissolution of TMT particles creates binder products with continuous thin-laminar structures, which improve the strength. Furthermore, with low SM content in the binder composition, more particles will remain unreacted, which results in a less dense microstructure and less compressive strength. Also, more unreacted TMT particles are detected in the mortars with high water/binder ratio. The excessive initial water content inhibits the hydration reaction of the precursor, leading to lower compressive strengths of the hardened mortars.
(4) However, the W/B ratio can potentially be reduced to achieve optimum values below 0.35 if the molding method is changed from casting to pressing approach. Future research should also focus on the selection of a TMT pretreatment method to address its low reactivity. The economics of one-part AAMs produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings can be further improved by replacing commercial SM with waste-derived alkali activators from industrial by-products.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.L.; methodology, A.F.; validation, A.K.; investigation, G.L., A.K. and A.F.; resources, G.L. and A.K.; writing—original draft preparation, G.L. and A.K.; visualization, G.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors acknowledge the support by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (grant No. FSUS-2024-0027).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

Yanshuai Wang would like to show appreciation for the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (No. 2023A0505010020).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Localization of site sampling; (b) Process chart of the sample preparation procedure.
Figure 1. (a) Localization of site sampling; (b) Process chart of the sample preparation procedure.
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Figure 2. SEM images of the raw W-Mo tailings: (a) 500× magnification and (b) 10,000× magnification.
Figure 2. SEM images of the raw W-Mo tailings: (a) 500× magnification and (b) 10,000× magnification.
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Figure 3. (a) Particle size distribution, (b) Chemical composition, (c) XRD pattern, and (d) ATR-FTIR spectra of TMT.
Figure 3. (a) Particle size distribution, (b) Chemical composition, (c) XRD pattern, and (d) ATR-FTIR spectra of TMT.
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Figure 4. (a) Cracking pattern of the alkali-activated mortar specimens containing 10 wt% SM and 90 wt% TMT at 0.45 (a) and 0.55 (b) water/binder ratio.
Figure 4. (a) Cracking pattern of the alkali-activated mortar specimens containing 10 wt% SM and 90 wt% TMT at 0.45 (a) and 0.55 (b) water/binder ratio.
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Figure 5. Bulk density of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings.
Figure 5. Bulk density of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings.
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Figure 6. Compressive strength of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings at the age of 28 days.
Figure 6. Compressive strength of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings at the age of 28 days.
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Figure 7. SEM images of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings.
Figure 7. SEM images of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings.
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Figure 8. XRD patterns of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings showing the effect of (a) SM content and (b) W/B ratio.
Figure 8. XRD patterns of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings showing the effect of (a) SM content and (b) W/B ratio.
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Figure 9. FTIR spectra of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings showing the effect of (a) SM content and (b) W/B ratio.
Figure 9. FTIR spectra of one-part alkali-activated mortar produced from tungsten–molybdenum tailings showing the effect of (a) SM content and (b) W/B ratio.
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Table 1. Mix composition of mortar specimens.
Table 1. Mix composition of mortar specimens.
Specimen CodeDry Activator (wt%)W-Mo Tailings (wt%)Water/Binder RatioProduct
A10T90W3510900.35Paste
A10T90W45 110900.45Mortar
A10T90W55 110900.55Mortar
A15T85W3515850.35Paste
A15T85W4515850.45Mortar
A15T80W5515850.55Mortar
A20T80W3520800.35Paste
A20T80W4520800.45Mortar
A20T80W5520800.55Mortar
A25T75W3525750.35Paste
A25T75W4525750.45Mortar
A25T75W5525750.55Mortar
1 Rejected specimens.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Lazorenko, G.; Wang, Y.; Fedotov, A.; Kasprzhitskii, A. One-Part Alkali-Activated Binder Produced from Tungsten-Molybdenum (W-Mo) Tailings. Eng 2024, 5, 3148-3160. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5040165

AMA Style

Lazorenko G, Wang Y, Fedotov A, Kasprzhitskii A. One-Part Alkali-Activated Binder Produced from Tungsten-Molybdenum (W-Mo) Tailings. Eng. 2024; 5(4):3148-3160. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5040165

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lazorenko, Georgy, Yanshuai Wang, Alexandr Fedotov, and Anton Kasprzhitskii. 2024. "One-Part Alkali-Activated Binder Produced from Tungsten-Molybdenum (W-Mo) Tailings" Eng 5, no. 4: 3148-3160. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5040165

APA Style

Lazorenko, G., Wang, Y., Fedotov, A., & Kasprzhitskii, A. (2024). One-Part Alkali-Activated Binder Produced from Tungsten-Molybdenum (W-Mo) Tailings. Eng, 5(4), 3148-3160. https://doi.org/10.3390/eng5040165

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