Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Epidemiology
1.2. Pathophysiology
1.3. Histopathology
1.4. Clinical Presentation
1.5. Existing Criteria for the Diagnosis of Cardiac Sarcoidosis
2. Diagnostic Modalities
2.1. Physical Examination
2.2. Electrocardiography
2.3. Biomarkers
2.4. Echocardiography
2.5. Perfusion Imaging
2.6. Gallium-67 Scintigraphy
2.7. Endomyocardial Biopsy
2.8. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging
2.9. F-18 FDG PET/CT
2.10. CMR and FDG-PET
3. Treatment
3.1. Immunosuppression
3.2. Ventricular Arrhythmias
3.3. Risk Stratification for SCD and ICD Implantation
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Histologic diagnosis |
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CS is diagnosed if an endomyocardial biopsy shows non-caseating granuloma with no other cause for the histologic findings |
Clinical diagnosis |
Cs is probable if
|
Histologic diagnosis |
---|
CS is diagnosed when a biopsy (endomyocardial or surgical) shows non-caseating granulomas |
Clinical diagnosis |
If an endomyocardial biopsy is not performed or is negative, a diagnosis is made clinically. CS is diagnosed clinically by:
|
|
Characteristic laboratory and imaging findings in CS |
Clinical diagnosis of Sarcoidosis supported when ≥2 of the following findings are observed:
|
Isolated CS diagnostic guidelines |
Isolated CS is suspected when:
|
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Pour-Ghaz, I.; Kayali, S.; Abutineh, I.; Patel, J.; Roman, S.; Nayyar, M.; Yedlapati, N. Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Hearts 2021, 2, 234-250. https://doi.org/10.3390/hearts2020019
Pour-Ghaz I, Kayali S, Abutineh I, Patel J, Roman S, Nayyar M, Yedlapati N. Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Hearts. 2021; 2(2):234-250. https://doi.org/10.3390/hearts2020019
Chicago/Turabian StylePour-Ghaz, Issa, Sharif Kayali, Iman Abutineh, Jay Patel, Sherif Roman, Mannu Nayyar, and Neeraja Yedlapati. 2021. "Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management" Hearts 2, no. 2: 234-250. https://doi.org/10.3390/hearts2020019
APA StylePour-Ghaz, I., Kayali, S., Abutineh, I., Patel, J., Roman, S., Nayyar, M., & Yedlapati, N. (2021). Cardiac Sarcoidosis: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management. Hearts, 2(2), 234-250. https://doi.org/10.3390/hearts2020019