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Review

From Detection to Treatment: Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors Transforming Prosthetic Dentistry and Oral Health Care: A Scoping Review

by
Noha Taymour
1,*,
Mohamed G. Hassan
2,*,
Maram A. AlGhamdi
1 and
Wessam S. Omara
3
1
Department of Substitutive Dental Sciences, College of Dentistry, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
2
Division of Bone and Mineral Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
3
Materials Science Department, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), Alexandria University, 163 Horyya Road Elshatby, P.O. Box 832, Alexandria 21526, Egypt
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Prosthesis 2025, 7(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis7030051
Submission received: 28 March 2025 / Revised: 2 May 2025 / Accepted: 6 May 2025 / Published: 14 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Prosthodontics)
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Abstract

Background: Nanomaterial-based biosensors represent a transformative advancement in oral health diagnostics and therapeutics, offering superior sensitivity and selectivity for early disease detection compared to conventional methods. Their applications span prosthetic dentistry, where they enable the precise monitoring of dental implants, and theranostics for conditions such as dental caries, oral cancers, and periodontal diseases. These innovations promise to enhance proactive oral healthcare by integrating detection, treatment, and preventive strategies. Objectives: This review comprehensively examines the role of nanomaterial-based biosensors in dental theranostics, with a focus on prosthetic applications. It emphasizes their utility in dental implant surveillance, the early identification of prosthesis-related complications, and their broader implications for personalized treatment paradigms. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for studies published between 2010 and early 2025. Keywords included combinations of “nanomaterials”, “biosensors”, “dentistry”, “oral health”, “diagnostics”, “therapeutics”, and “theranostics”. Articles were selected based on their relevance to nanomaterial applications in dental biosensors and their clinical translation. Results: The review identified diverse classes of nanomaterials—such as metallic nanoparticles, carbon-based structures, and quantum dots—whose unique physicochemical properties enhance biosensor performance. Key advancements include the ultra-sensitive detection of biomarkers in saliva and gingival crevicular fluid, the real-time monitoring of peri-implant inflammatory markers, and cost-effective diagnostic platforms. These systems demonstrate exceptional precision in detecting early-stage pathologies while improving operational efficiency in clinical settings. Conclusions: Nanomaterial-based biosensors hold significant promise for revolutionizing dental care through real-time implant monitoring and early complication detection. Despite challenges related to biocompatibility, scalable manufacturing, and rigorous clinical validation, these technologies may redefine oral healthcare by extending prosthetic device longevity, enabling personalized interventions, and reducing long-term treatment costs. Future research must address translational barriers to fully harness their potential in improving diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic outcomes.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The integration of nanotechnology into dental research and clinical practice represents a paradigm shift in how we approach oral health diagnostics and treatment modalities [1]. Nanomaterials, with their unique physicochemical properties and exceptional surface-to-volume ratios, offer unprecedented opportunities to enhance sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency in dental applications [2]. Biosensors have found extensive use in monitoring a wide array of biologically relevant analytes including neurotransmitters for neurological diagnostics, electrochemical glucose monitoring for diabetes management, and heavy metals for environmental safety. These diverse applications highlight the versatility and broad applicability of biosensing technologies [3]. Nanomaterial-based dental sensors have emerged as particularly valuable tools in modern dentistry, combining the advanced capabilities of nanotechnology with the specific diagnostic needs of oral healthcare. Indeed, the application of such sophisticated sensing technologies addresses a critical need for early detection methods in dental practice that can identify pathologies before they progress to advanced stages [4,5]. The increasing growth in the biosensors industry in the dental field reflects the growing demand for reliable, rapid, cost-effective, and high-performance tools to diagnose, detect, or predict dysfunctions or disease causatives in the early stages [6]. A biosensor is an analytical device that is able to capture or entrap analyte in a certain medium and express the result of this process either optically [7], electrochemically [8], or physically [9,10]. The sensing process is composed of five essential components [11]: (1) The target molecule, which is the main precursor of the sensing process. It may be a living or non-living molecule. (2) The bioreceptor, which is a biological part or fragment that possesses a function group or active site in which the target molecule can be entrapped or immobilized either by chemical bond or physically. It has two main functions: the first is the recognition and selection of the target molecule and the second is the immobilization and reaction with the target molecule to produce the sensing signal. (3) The transducer, which is an intermediate surface with optical, electrochemical, and mechanical properties that change accordingly as a response to analyze presence and concentration [12,13]. The transducer helps signal to move into component. (4) The amplifier [14,15], which is an electronic part that has a main function of gratifying the tiny produced signal into a measurable value that clearly appears as a digital readout onto the monitor [16]. Nanomaterials are proposed to become an added value in sensor fabrication when the receptor and transducer are replaced with bio-functionalized nanomaterials [17,18]. Figure 1 presents the main components of sensing process and the potential integration of nanomaterials in sensing devices.
While nanomaterials demonstrate potent antibacterial effects, their cytotoxic potential at high concentrations necessitates rigorous safety profiling. Given the increasing demand for reliable, rapid, cost-effective, and high-performance diagnostic tools in dentistry, this scoping review was conducted to synthesize and critically analyze the current state of knowledge regarding nanomaterial-based biosensors in dental theranostics, highlighting their potential to transform oral healthcare.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Search Strategy

A comprehensive literature search was performed using the following electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The search was limited to articles published in English from 2010 until early 2025, focusing on recent advancements in the dental field. To ensure a comprehensive search, the following strategy was implemented: PubMed: The search strategy combined (MeSH) terms and relevant keywords. The primary MeSH terms used were “Nanomaterials”[MeSH], “Biosensors”[MeSH], “Dentistry”[MeSH], “Oral Health”[MeSH], “Diagnostics”[MeSH], and “Therapeutics”[MeSH]. The keyword “theranostics” was also included to capture emerging literature not yet indexed with MeSH. Scopus and Web of Science: The search strategy employed a combination of keywords in the article title, abstract, and keyword lists. The keywords used were as follows: “nanomaterials”, “biosensors”, “dental”, “oral health”, “theranostics”, “diagnostics”, “therapeutics”, “nanosensors”, and “dentistry”. Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to combine search terms and refine search results within each database. The inclusion criteria involved original research articles, review papers, studies focusing on nanomaterial-based biosensors for dental applications, articles discussing theranostic applications in dentistry, and publications exploring the integration of nanotechnology in oral health diagnostics and therapeutics. The exclusion criteria encompassed studies not related to dental applications, articles focusing solely on nanomaterials without biosensing components, publications not peer-reviewed, and duplicate studies.

2.2. Screening Process

The retrieved articles were screened in a two-stage process. First, titles and abstracts were screened to identify potentially relevant studies based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Second, the full texts of the selected articles were retrieved and assessed for eligibility. The screening process was performed independently by two reviewers (N.T and W.S.O). Disagreements were resolved through discussion and consensus (Figure 2).

2.3. Data Extraction

The selected articles were thoroughly reviewed, and relevant data were extracted, including types of nanomaterials used in dental biosensors, biosensing mechanisms and principles, diagnostic and therapeutic applications in dentistry, performance characteristics of the biosensors, challenges and limitations, future perspectives and potential advancements. The extracted information was critically analyzed to identify trends, evaluate the efficacy of different approaches, and assess the potential impact on dental theranostics.

3. Nanomaterials: The Building Blocks of Advanced Dental Biosensors

Nanomaterials exhibit distinctive characteristics, including a high surface-area-to-volume ratio, superior electrical conductivity, and remarkable chemical stability, rendering them particularly advantageous for developing highly sensitive, selective, and miniaturized dental sensors [19]. Various nanomaterials have demonstrated significant potential in the detection and diagnosis of oral pathologies. These nanomaterials enhance sensitivity and enable the early detection of dental infection through molecular imaging and biosensing techniques [6]. This progress underscores their role in transforming conventional diagnostic approaches into highly sensitive and specific methods.

3.1. Nanobiosensors for Periodontal Health

The timely and precise diagnosis of periodontitis plays a crucial role in facilitating early intervention and optimizing disease management protocols [20,21]. Despite their widespread use, conventional diagnostic approaches, including clinical examinations [22] and radiographic imaging techniques [23], demonstrate significant limitations in their capacity to provide a comprehensive assessment of disease activity, severity progression patterns, and real-time inflammatory status [24]. Recently, the development of nanomaterial-based biosensors has emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges and improve the detection and monitoring of periodontitis [6]. Nanosensors equipped with particles like silver and zinc oxide exhibit significant antimicrobial properties against common oral pathogens, including *Porphyromonas gingivalis* and *Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans*, thereby potentially addressing periodontitis-related microbial colonization [25]. Furthermore, advanced nanostructures, specifically engineered gold nanostructures (GNSs), have been examined for their diagnostic potential in periodontal care. Zhang et al. highlight how GNSs can facilitate precise imaging and may serve as effective carriers for drug delivery systems aimed at periodontal pathogens, thus enhancing early diagnosis and treatment strategies [26]. Li et al. present findings on a novel multifunctional nanomedicine that integrates antibacterial and osteogenic properties, demonstrating the combined capabilities of engineered nanoparticles to tackle periodontal disease through both direct antimicrobial action and support for healing processes [27]. This multifunctionality not only caters to therapeutic interventions but also exemplifies the potential use of such particles in diagnostics, thus highlighting the significant translational potential of nanosensor technology in dental applications. Metal/magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and quantum dots serve as fundamental components in the fabrication of nanobiosensors characterized by exceptional sensitivity and accuracy for detecting periodontal disease biomarkers in saliva [28]. These allow for effective differentiation between healthy patients and those with periodontitis. The enhanced sensitivity, specificity, and potential for real-time monitoring offered by nanomaterial-based biosensors present a compelling alternative to traditional periodontal diagnostic techniques. A comparative summary is presented in Table 1, directly contrasting nanomaterial-based biosensors with conventional diagnostic tools.

3.1.1. Metal Nanoparticles

Gold (Au) and silver (Ag) metal nanoparticles have garnered significant attention in developing nanobiosensors for the detection and potential treatment of periodontitis [32]. These nanoparticles exhibit exceptional optical and electrical properties, enabling the development of highly sensitive and selective detection platforms. Gold nanoparticles (AuNps) are considered the most famous metallic nanoparticles used in biomedical applications [26]; due to their unique and novel optical and electrical properties, they became a strong competitor in the biosensing domain [33]. For instance, studies have demonstrated the efficacy of AuNPs, functionalized with specific antibodies/aptamers, in periodontitis detection biomarkers, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and inflammatory cytokines, within saliva and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) samples. Different morphologies of gold nanoparticles are presented in Figure 3. Kim et al. (2023) introduced a silver nanoplate-based multicolorimetric sensor utilizing the geometrical transformation of silver nanoplates for the detection of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) in saliva. This sensor achieved an LOD of 0.0011 U/L for ALP and 0.066 pg/mL for IL-1β, providing a portable and sensitive detection method for periodontal biomarkers [34]. Bae et al. (2022) developed a self-assembled monolayer-functionalized Au/In2O3 nanofiber sensor for detecting exhaled H2S, a biomarker for periodontitis. The sensor exhibited high selectivity and sensitivity, with an LOD of 10 ppb, making it suitable for non-invasive periodontal screening [35]. Another study proposed a sensor based on ZnO nanofilms laminated with Au nanoparticles for detecting methyl mercaptan (CH3SH) in exhaled breath. This sensor achieved a gas response of 4.99% for 50 ppb of CH3SH and a detection limit of 50 ppb, highlighting its potential for early periodontitis diagnosis [25].

3.1.2. Magnetic Nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles, particularly iron oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles, have also emerged as promising sensors for periodontal disease diagnostics due to their capacity to detect key pathogenic bacteria, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, directly within clinical samples [36,37]. These nanoparticles can be easily manipulated and separated using external magnetic fields, allowing for efficient sample preparation and analyte isolation [38,39]. Figure 4 presents the potential biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles in dentistry. Palomar et al. (2022) developed a solid-state nanopore biosensor for detecting protease activity, specifically targeting gingipains, which are key factors in periodontitis. This sensor exhibited a limit of detection (LOD) of 1 ng/mL for gingipains, demonstrating its high sensitivity and potential for clinical diagnostics [40].

3.1.3. Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene are utilized as electrochemical biosensors for periodontitis detection due to their exceptional electrical conductivity, biocompatibility, and high surface area [33]. Scientific reports have documented the utilization of CNT-based sensors to detect periodontitis-associated salivary biomarkers, including alkaline phosphatase and/or lactate dehydrogenase, highlighting their efficacy in non-invasive diagnostic monitoring [41].

3.1.4. Quantum Dots

Semiconductor nanocrystals known as quantum dots (QDs) exhibit distinctive optical properties, including size-dependent emission spectra and high photostability. Consequently, researchers have developed QD-based fluorescent biosensors for the detection of periodontal biomarkers, offering enhanced sensitivity and multiplexing capabilities [42]. These QD-based sensors have been employed to detect a range of salivary analytes, including proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids, that are indicative of periodontitis. Fu et al. explored the application of various nanomaterials in the detection of oral diseases of QDs, with particular emphasis on their utility in diagnosing periodontitis through various molecular imaging and biosensing techniques [43]. Jiang et al. 2023 reviewed the applications of carbon dots (CDs) as an antimicrobial agent for treating oral infections and analyzed their effectiveness against diverse oral pathogens [44].

3.1.5. Nanozymes

Nanozymes, a class of nanomaterials with inherent enzyme-like catalytic activities, are increasingly being explored for the fabrication of colorimetric and electrochemical biosensors. These catalytic properties can be harnessed for the precise identification of periodontitis-linked biomarkers, including hydrogen peroxide and myeloperoxidase, within clinical samples [45], as illustrated in Figure 5. Zhong et al. (2023) explored the development of nanozymes for various biomedical applications, including antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant therapies. Although the focus is broader, the principles discussed are directly applicable to periodontitis detection. The scientists emphasize the importance of targeting and precision in nanozyme-based systems, which can be achieved by functionalizing nanozymes with specific molecules to enhance their interaction with periodontal pathogens [46]. Liang and Qian (2023) provided a comprehensive review of nanozymes in the detection of clinical biomarkers, emphasizing their integration with colorimetric, fluorescent, and electrochemical methods to establish highly sensitive and accurate biosensors. Their work underscores the transformative potential of these systems in periodontitis diagnostics, particularly for the early and reliable identification of biomarkers like alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), which are critical for optimizing therapeutic outcomes. This highlights the potential of nanozyme-based biosensors to improve diagnostic capabilities and facilitate timely intervention in periodontal disease management [47].

3.1.6. Integrated Nanobiosensor Platforms

Integrated nanobiosensor platforms are being engineered to combine diverse nanomaterials with advanced transduction methods to leverage their synergistic interactions to achieve enhanced sensitivity and selectivity, as well as multiplexing detection capability for recognizing a panel of relevant periodontal biomarkers. Such integrated approaches hold promise for providing more effective and personalized treatment strategies.
Upconversion Nanoparticle-Based Lateral Flow Immunoassay (LFIS)
He et al. introduced a lateral flow immunoassay using upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) for the simultaneous detection of multiple periodontitis biomarkers. This innovative platform enables the rapid, multiplexed, point-of-care testing of matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), achieving detection limits of 5.455 ng/mL, 0.054 ng/mL, and 4.439 ng/mL, respectively. This UCNP-based LFIA represents a significant advancement towards the convenient and comprehensive on-site monitoring of periodontal disease activity [16].
SERS-Based Magnetic Microfluidic Sensor
Witkowska et al. demonstrated the use of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) combined with a magnetomicrofluidic chip for periodontal pathogen detection. The sensor utilized silver-coated magnetic nanoparticles to separate and enhance the Raman signal of bacterial cells, providing a rapid and specific method for detecting periodontitis-associated pathogens [48].
Advanced Nano–Bio Interfaces
Jia, Wang, and Cai (2023) discussed the integration of nanomaterials with biosensors for disease detection, highlighting their application in creating highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tools. The review emphasized the potential of nano–bio interfaces in improving the performance of biosensors for detecting biomarkers related to various diseases, including periodontitis [49].

3.2. Nanobiosensors for Management of Oral Cancer

Oral cancer remains a significant global health concern, representing approximately 85% of all head and neck cancers and ranking as the sixth most common cancer worldwide [50]. Recognizing the importance of early detection is crucial, as it is directly correlated with improved patient prognosis and survival rates. However, traditional diagnostic aids, including visual examination and biopsy, have limitations in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and invasiveness [51]. Recently developed nanomaterial-based biosensors are innovative approach to address these challenges and enhance the detection and monitoring of oral cancer [52]. Ghosn et al. (2010) provided evidence for using imidazole-loaded chitosan as a permeation enhancer to deliver optical contrast agents across mucosal layers. The research details a systematic approach to overcome barriers in the topical delivery of diagnostic agents, addressing a significant limitation in current cancer detection methodologies [53]. In this study, the authors synthesized an imidazole-functionalized chitosan derivative (chitosan-IAA) that demonstrated a significant increase in mucosal permeability. By utilizing confocal microscopy, researchers effectively tracked the delivery and localization of both small molecules and nanoparticles, elucidating the dual paracellular and transcellular pathways through which these agents could be delivered. The data illustrate that chitosan-IAA enhanced permeation in a highly reproducible and rapid manner, making it a candidate for improving the delivery efficiency of diagnostic agents necessary for early cancer detection.
The clinical implications are profound; they demonstrate the ability of this novel formulation to discriminate between normal and malignant biopsies through the coadministration of epidermal growth factor receptor-targeted antibodies. Notably, the study focused on freshly resected mucosal tissues, which provides direct relevance to real-world clinical scenarios. While specific patient numbers were not disclosed, the experimental design and the technology’s capabilities suggest a substantial potential for clinical application in enhancing diagnostic specificity and sensitivity.

3.2.1. MoS2-ZnO Nanocomposite Immunosensor

Vetrivel et al. (2023) developed a molybdenum disulfide-decorated zinc oxide (MoS2/ZnO) nanocomposite immunosensor designed for the non-invasive electrochemical detection of the IL8 oral tumor biomarker. This sensor exhibited a low limit of detection (LOD) of 11.6 fM and demonstrated excellent stability, high sensitivity, and reproducibility, positioning it as a promising tool for potential clinical translation in the early diagnosis of oral cancer. The development of such highly sensitive immunosensors is crucial for improving patient outcomes through timely and accurate detection of this disease [54].

3.2.2. Biowaste-Derived Triboelectric Nanogenerator

Panda et al. (2023) introduced a sustainable triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) for oral health monitoring. This sensor, fabricated using biodegradable materials like cellulose, chitosan, and gelatin, can harvest biomechanical energy to power bite sensors. It offers a cost-effective and eco-friendly approach to monitor oral health, including potential applications in detecting oral cancer [55].

3.2.3. Nanocomposite-Based Biosensors

Sridharan et al. (2023) reviewed the use of electrochemical biosensors based nanocomposites like graphene oxide, carbon quantum dots, MoS2, and MXenes for detecting oral cancer salivary biomarkers such as CYFRA 21-1 and IL8. These biosensors provide rapid and accurate detection, highlighting the clinical potential of nanocomposites in oral cancer diagnostics [56]. Carbon nanotube-based electrochemical sensors, despite their sensitivity for detecting EGFR mutations in saliva, face biocompatibility concerns due to asbestos-like fiber morphology and unresolved inflammatory responses in chronic exposure scenarios [52].

3.2.4. Gold Nanorod Multiplex Bioanalytical Assay

Chakraborty et al. (2022) introduced a gold nanorod (GNR)-based multiplex bioanalytical assay to detect CYFRA 21-1 and CA-125 biomarkers. The assay uses the unique optical properties of GNRs to achieve exceptional specificity and sensitivity, with detection limits of 0.84 ng/mL for CYFRA 21-1 and 1.6 U/mL for CA-125. This technology offers a good platform for early-stage oral cancer diagnostics [57]. While gold nanoparticle-based biosensors show promise for detecting oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) biomarkers like IL-6 and CD44 in saliva [31], few studies have progressed beyond pilot validation. Current FDA-cleared oral cancer diagnostics remain limited to traditional methods (VELscope®), underscoring the need for standardized protocols to assess sensor reproducibility across diverse patient populations [52].

3.2.5. Magnetite Nanoparticles

Recent studies have demonstrated that magnetite nanoparticles can be utilized for targeted magnetic hyperthermia, where nanoparticles are directed to tumor sites, via antibody functionalization targeting αvβ6 integrin, a biomarker overexpressed in OSCC and then exposed to an alternating magnetic field to induce localized heating and tumor cell ablation [58]. This approach allows for the selective destruction of malignant cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. In vitro and preclinical studies have shown that antibody-conjugated magnetite nanoparticles can be effectively targeted to OSCC cells, resulting in significant tumor cell death upon magnetic hyperthermia treatment [59]. Additionally, magnetite nanoparticles have been explored as carriers for targeted drug delivery, gene therapy, and as adjuncts in immunotherapy, further broadening their therapeutic applications in oral oncology [60]. However, further clinical trials are needed to establish their efficacy and safety specifically in oral cancer patients.

3.3. Integrated Nanobiosensors for Detection of Dental Caries

The early and accurate detection of carious lesion is crucial for the timely intervention and prevention of further progression [61]. Traditional diagnostic methods for dental caries, including visual examination, radiographic imaging, and tactile probing, are often limited by their inherent sensitivity and specificity [50]. Moreover, these conventional approaches struggle to effectively differentiate between active and inactive carious lesions, which is crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies. This underscores the need for more advanced diagnostic tools capable of providing a more accurate and nuanced assessment of caries activity [62].
Moraes et al. 2021 underscored the versatility of nanomaterials in enhancing the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of caries, with applications extending to periodontal diseases and oral infections, thanks to improved delivery mechanisms in nanocomposites [63]. As further delineated in the comprehensive review by Glowacka-Sobotta et al., the utilization of nanostructures in dental composites augments their properties, including adhesive strength and microbial interactions, thus improving overall oral health [64]. Notably, the potential of engineered nanostructures to enhance the delivery and efficacy of preventive agents warrants additional investigative efforts, particularly those aiming to reformulate existing therapeutic stratagems against caries.

3.3.1. Metal Nanoparticles

Silver (Ag) and zinc oxide (ZnO) are widely utilized in the design of nanobiosensors for dental caries detection [65]. These nanoparticles exhibit exceptional antimicrobial and remineralization properties, enabling the development of multifunctional detection platforms [66]. Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) have demonstrated potent antibacterial activity against cariogenic bacteria, such as Streptococcus mutans, by disrupting their cell membranes and interfering with their metabolic processes [67,68]. Ag NPs have been introduced into dental materials, such as resins and adhesives, to inhibit biofilm formation and prevent the development of secondary caries. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have also garnered attention for their ability to inhibit the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are enzymes involved in the degradation of the tooth’s collagen matrix during the caries process [69]. Additionally, ZnO NPs have been shown to enhance the remineralization of demineralized tooth structures, aiding in the repair of carious lesions [70].

3.3.2. Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene have been explored for developing electrochemical biosensors for caries detection thanks to their exceptional electrical conductivity, high surface area, and excellent biocompatibility, making them suitable for the detection of various caries-related biomarkers, such as pH changes and the presence of cariogenic bacteria [71].

3.3.3. Quantum Dots

QD-based fluorescent biosensors have been utilized to detect dental caries-related biomarkers, including pH changes and the presence of caries inducing bacteria [72].

3.3.4. Integrated Nanobiosensor Platforms

These integrated platforms strategically exploit the synergistic interactions between different nanomaterials to achieve the simultaneous detection of a variety of caries-related biomarkers, providing a more comprehensive assessment of caries risk and activity compared to single-analyte detection methods.
Nanoparticle-Based Targeting and Detection of Microcavities
Jones et al. (2017) developed an innovative bio-based nanoparticle system designed for the in vitro detection of active caries. This system utilizes cationic fluorescein-labeled food-grade starch nanoparticles, which exhibit fluorescence under standard dental curing light illumination. These nanoparticles selectively bind to active carious lesions, causing them to illuminate and thereby facilitating early diagnosis. The results of this study highlight the potential for significant advancements in dental diagnostics through the targeted application of bio-based nanoparticles [73]. The use of nanotechnology in the early detection of microcavities was further discussed by Mady and Alzayyat (2021), underscoring the growing interest in these advanced diagnostic approaches [74].
Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Biosensors
Eissa et al. (2022) provided an editorial overviewing the integration of nanomaterials into electrochemical biosensors. These sensors have garnered significant attention for their potential across a range of applications, primarily due to their inherent advantages, including low cost, ease of operation, and potential for miniaturization [75]. The integration of nanomaterials into electrochemical biosensors represents a promising avenue for developing point-of-care diagnostic tools in various fields [76].

3.4. Nanosensors for Dental Implant Monitoring and Maintenance

Dental implant prosthesis has become a widely accepted treatment option for replacing missing teeth, offering improved functionality, esthetics, and long-term stability compared to traditional dental prostheses. However, the success of dental implants is heavily dependent on the establishment of a strong and stable implant/bone interface, known as osseointegration [77]. Monitoring the health and integration of dental implants is crucial, as complications such as peri-implantitis, implant loosening, and implant failure can occur, potentially leading to significant patient discomfort and the need for costly remedial treatments. Nanomaterials are being integrated into dental implants to create sensors that can monitor implant health, detect infections, and assess osseointegration in real-time. However, more research is still needed to fully realize the potential of these technologies and demonstrate their efficacy in vivo.
Nanobased sensors, particularly those utilizing advanced surface treatments and characterization techniques, show promising efficacy in enhancing dental implant integration [78]. Moreover, the integration of real-time monitoring systems such as QCM-D provides a nuanced understanding of cellular dynamics on implant surfaces, which is critical for predicting long-term outcomes [79]. The consensus across the studies analyzed reinforces the idea that nanostructured surfaces not only facilitate enhanced cellular interactions but also yield measurable improvements in osseointegration metrics, underscoring their importance in clinical applications pertaining to dental implants.

3.4.1. Metal Nanoparticles

Gold (Au) and silver (Ag) metal nanoparticles have found extensive use in the design of nanobiosensors specifically tailored for monitoring the performance and health of dental implants [80]. Recent studies have reported that employing Au nanoparticles functionalized with certain antibodies and/or aptamers could detect biomarkers associated with peri-implant inflammation, such as inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), in peri-implant crevicular fluid (PICF) samples [81,82]. These sensors can provide early warning signs of peri-implantitis, allowing for timely intervention and the prevention of further complications. Kaefer et al. (2021) presented Au nanoparticle-loaded hydrogels for long-term implanted biosensing. This sensor is designed for long-term implantation and the continuous monitoring of biomarkers in bodily fluids. The sensor utilizes optical imaging and aptamer receptors to monitor biomarker concentrations in bodily fluids. This technology is adaptable to various analytes, making it suitable for continuous monitoring of dental implants to detect early signs of implant-related complications [83].

3.4.2. Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs)

MNP-based biosensors could detect the presence of pathogenic bacteria in PICF samples associated with peri-implantitis [84] for the early diagnosis and monitoring of implant-related infections [85]. MNP-based biosensors exhibited biocompatibility, stability, and high magnetic susceptibility, which make them ideal for detecting biomarkers associated with dental implant complications. The integration of MNPs with diagnostic magnetic resonance (DMR), surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) was also reported [86]. Buder et al. (2022) explored the incorporation of MNPs into macroporous hydrogels for implantation. These hydrogels facilitate tissue integration and enable continuous monitoring of biochemical markers [87].

3.4.3. Carbon-Based Nanobiosensors

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene electrochemical biosensors have been developed for dental implant monitoring [88]. Researchers have reported the use of CNT-based sensors for the detection of salivary biomarkers associated with peri-implant tissue health, such as alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase [31]. These sensors can provide insights into the osseointegration and overall status of the dental implant.

3.4.4. Quantum Dot-Based Nanosensors

QD-based sensors have been used to detect salivary proteins, enzymes, and nucleic acids associated with peri-implant tissue health, offering improved sensitivity and multiplexing capabilities [89].

3.4.5. Integrated Nanobiosensor Platforms

Li et al. (2020) explored the use of nanogenerators as self-powered sensors for wearable and implantable electronics. These sensors operate on piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and triboelectric effects, which allow them to harvest energy from body movements and other mechanical activities. The study emphasized the potential of these self-powered sensors in health monitoring applications, including dental implants, by eliminating the need for external power sources [90]. Additionally, the developed triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) using biowaste-derived materials for oral health monitoring is a sustainable approach that converts mechanical energy from oral activities into electrical signals, which can be used to monitor dental implants. The study demonstrated the potential of TENG-based sensors in providing continuous and non-invasive monitoring of dental implants [55]. Figure 6 shows how miniaturized biosensing devices can be integrated into the tooth surface to monitor oral health.

4. Limitations

While the review aimed to cover various dental applications, the available literature may be skewed towards certain areas (periodontal disease diagnosis, dental implant monitoring) compared to others. This may result in a disproportionate representation of specific nanomaterials and biosensing strategies. Additionally, a significant proportion of the reviewed studies focused on in vitro or preclinical experiments, with limited clinical validation data available for many nanomaterial-based biosensors. Therefore, the actual clinical utility and translational potential of these technologies remain uncertain, and further research is needed to assess their performance in real-world settings.

5. Challenges and Future Perspectives

Despite the promising advancements in nanomaterial-based biosensors for dental applications, several challenges remain regarding the biosafety and long-term effects of these materials in nanoscale [44]. These include sensor performance optimization, clinical utility validation, development of user-friendly, point-of-care devices, long-term stability assessment, biocompatibility evaluation, scalability of nanobiosensor systems [19,91]. To address these challenges and advance the field, future research should focus on developing reliable nanobiosensor platforms, identifying novel biomarkers for various dental conditions, integrating sensors with advanced data analysis and machine learning algorithms, improving diagnostic accuracy and personalized treatment approaches. Future progress in nanomaterial-based biosensors hinges on strategies to ensure stability and minimize off-target effects. Encapsulation techniques, such as microfluidic encapsulation, and surface functionalization with biocompatible ligands enhance nanoparticle protection in complex oral environments. Concurrently, mitigating unintended antibacterial effects requires careful design, balancing antimicrobial properties with biosensor sensitivity through targeted surface modifications, optimized nanomaterial selection, and selective biorecognition elements.
Collaborative efforts between researchers, clinicians, and industry partners are essential to translate these technologies from the laboratory to clinical practice. The successful implementation of nanomaterial-based biosensors could significantly enhance early the detection, management, and prevention of dental diseases such as periodontitis, oral cancer, and dental caries. As the field progresses, it is crucial to consider ethical implications and regulatory requirements for these novel diagnostic tools. Additionally, the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of these technologies in diverse healthcare settings must be addressed to ensure widespread adoption and a positive impact on global oral health.

6. Conclusions

Based on this scoping review, the following conclusions were drawn:
  • Nanomaterial-based biosensors are poised to revolutionize dental theranostics, offering unprecedented opportunities for early disease detection and personalized treatment.
  • As we continue to refine these technologies, we stand on the brink of a new era in oral healthcare—one where diagnosis is rapid, precise, and minimally invasive.
  • The integration of nanotechnology into dentistry not only advances our diagnostic capabilities but also provides the way for more effective, targeted therapies.
  • As research progresses, these innovative tools promise to transform the landscape of oral health, ultimately leading to improved patient outcomes and a new standard of dental care.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.T. and W.S.O.; methodology, W.S.O.; software, M.A.A.; validation, N.T., M.A.A., and M.G.H.; formal analysis, N.T.; investigation, W.S.O.; resources, M.G.H.; data curation, N.T.; writing—original draft preparation, N.T. and M.A.A.; writing—review and editing, W.S.O. and M.G.H.; visualization, W.S.O.; supervision, N.T. and M.G.H.; project administration, N.T.; funding acquisition, M.G.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

ALPAlkaline Phosphatase
AuGold
AuNpsGold Nanoparticles
AgSilver
CDsCarbon Dots
CH3SHMethyl Mercaptan
CNTsCarbon Nanotubes
Fe2O3Iron Oxide
GCFGingival Crevicular Fluid
GNSGold Nanostructures
H2SHydrogen Sulfide
IL-1βInterleukin-1 Beta
LFISLateral Flow Immunoassay
LODLimit of Detection
MMPsMatrix Metalloproteinases
QDsQuantum Dots
SERSSurface-Enhanced Raman Scattering
TNF-αTumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha
UCNPsUpconversion Nanoparticles
ZnOZinc Oxide
OSCCOral Squamous Cell carcinoma

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Figure 1. Basic component of the sensing process.
Figure 1. Basic component of the sensing process.
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Figure 2. Flowchart for the review search strategy.
Figure 2. Flowchart for the review search strategy.
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Figure 3. The different shapes of gold nanoparticles.
Figure 3. The different shapes of gold nanoparticles.
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Figure 4. The potential biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles in dentistry.
Figure 4. The potential biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles in dentistry.
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Figure 5. Nanozyme-based biosensing system.
Figure 5. Nanozyme-based biosensing system.
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Figure 6. Integrated nanobiosensor platforms for oral health monitoring.
Figure 6. Integrated nanobiosensor platforms for oral health monitoring.
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Table 1. Comparative analysis of nanomaterial-based biosensors and conventional periodontal diagnostic techniques.
Table 1. Comparative analysis of nanomaterial-based biosensors and conventional periodontal diagnostic techniques.
ParameterNanomaterial-Based BiosensorsConventional Diagnostic Techniques
SpecificityHigh specificity for biomarkers (e.g., MMP-8, IL-1β) and pathogens (e.g., P. gingivalis) via functionalized nanomaterials [29].Moderate specificity: relies on clinical signs (e.g., probing depth, bleeding) or culture-based methods, which may miss early biomarkers [19].
Turnaround TimeRapid detection (<30 min) for real-time monitoring [30]. Hours to days for laboratory results (e.g., ELISA, PCR, microbial cultures) [19].
Integration into WorkflowPortable designs (e.g., microfluidic chips) enable chairside use but require training [31].Well-established in clinics (e.g., periodontal probes, radiographs) but limited to subjective assessments [19].
Cost-EffectivenessHigher initial development costs but lower per-test expenses. Low initial costs but recurring expenses for reagents, lab processing, and specialist interpretation [29].
Key LimitationsBiocompatibility concerns, scalability challenges, and need for standardized validation [19].Limited sensitivity for early diseases, invasive sampling (GCF), and inability to predict disease progression [19].
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Taymour, N.; Hassan, M.G.; AlGhamdi, M.A.; Omara, W.S. From Detection to Treatment: Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors Transforming Prosthetic Dentistry and Oral Health Care: A Scoping Review. Prosthesis 2025, 7, 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis7030051

AMA Style

Taymour N, Hassan MG, AlGhamdi MA, Omara WS. From Detection to Treatment: Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors Transforming Prosthetic Dentistry and Oral Health Care: A Scoping Review. Prosthesis. 2025; 7(3):51. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis7030051

Chicago/Turabian Style

Taymour, Noha, Mohamed G. Hassan, Maram A. AlGhamdi, and Wessam S. Omara. 2025. "From Detection to Treatment: Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors Transforming Prosthetic Dentistry and Oral Health Care: A Scoping Review" Prosthesis 7, no. 3: 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis7030051

APA Style

Taymour, N., Hassan, M. G., AlGhamdi, M. A., & Omara, W. S. (2025). From Detection to Treatment: Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors Transforming Prosthetic Dentistry and Oral Health Care: A Scoping Review. Prosthesis, 7(3), 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/prosthesis7030051

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