Fields in the Forest Roman Land Division Between Siscia and Andautonia Through LIDAR Data Analysis

Abstract

This study investigates the Roman land division system, centuriation, using LIDAR data and historical data to understand the landscape during the Roman period, in this case between Roman cities such as Siscia and Andautonia. LIDAR data analysis provided evidence of the preservation of the Roman centuriation system in the present day Turopoljski Lug forest. The azimuth suggests that centuriation aligned with Siscia’s ager, while the precise territorial limits between the two agers remain unclear. Additionally, the orientation of Siscia’s streets and the alignment of modern roads like Zagrebačka street suggest continuity of the Roman road system. The research also sheds light on the agricultural nature of the region in the Roman period, challenging traditional views of Turopolje as a marshy, forested area from prehistoric periods. The presence of Roman-era drainage systems and the re-evaluation of the historical landscape indicate that the region was actively cultivated. The study also discusses the abandonment of the centuriation system after the Roman period and its subsequent transformation into forested land. Future research should focus on the exact borders between the agers of Siscia and Andautonia and the ongoing influence of Roman land division on later historical landscapes.

1. Introduction

Centuriation, or land division in equal plots, is an essential feature of the global impact of the Ancient Roman world on the landscape. It was formed above ground (walls) or cut into the ground (ditches). Ancient authors such as Frontinus and Hyginus Gromaticus illustrate important aspects of land division, describing how balks and roads (limites) were arranged in squares or rectangles (centuriae). These areas could then be subdivided to provide allotments for settlers, a process carried out by surveyors (mensores, agrimensores, or gromatici), as described in Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum [1]. The drawing of maps to record land division was the responsibility of surveyors. Evidence of that is the find of part of a surveyor’s map on the Roman bronze inscription depicting teritori Lacimurgenses (Spain) [2].

The Roman colony Siscia was founded on strategical intersection near the border of the Roman provinces Pannonia and Dalmatia [3]. Numerous documented roads intersected in this area.

The area between Roman towns Andautonia (Šćitarjevo) and Siscia (Sisak) is long recognized as an important archaeological landscape, primarily because of the location of Roman roads between Emona, Poetovio, Andautonia, and Siscia [4]. A large part of this area is now covered in forest, known as Turopoljski Lug [5,6,7]. At the end of the 20th century, the size of the forest was 4337.46 ha [8]. In the late 19th century, the size of the forest was almost two times smaller [9], which is important to the understanding of the present level of preservation of archaeological features (Figure 1).

Centuriation was part of the formal process of colonization, where land was conquered and divided into rectangular units, often for agricultural purposes. The most common division was 20 by 20 actus (regular squares of 710 × 710 m), especially in the Augustan era [10], but there could also be other measurements, such as 12 × 12 Forum Iulii, 21 × 20 Cremona, 25 × 16 Beneventum, or other measurements, as indicated by ancient authors [10]. The 20 × 20 actus produced an area of 200 iugera [11] with intersecting limites. Limites could be built as walls or dug up as ditches in marshy lowlands when they served also for reclamation. The remains of Roman centuriation in Croatia are generally better documented in stone-rich environments, where they were marked by (dry) walls. At present, the remains of centuriation are detected on the Istrian peninsula, with an azimuth of 18° [12,13], then Zadar (Iadera), Ugljan Island, Salona, Epidaurum, Tragurium, Parentium, Pola, Pharos, and Cissa [14,15,16,17,18,19,20], all situated along the Adriatic coast. LIDAR data analysis and visualization confirm the presence of Roman land division and its remains as elevations and drywalls (e.g., [21,22]).

However, in continental Croatia, such as in Turopoljski Lug, evidence of centuriation is rare and distinct—formed not by walls but by ditches and embankments, especially suited to marshy, lowland terrains. This makes the region between Siscia and Andautonia a significant site for understanding the inland application of the Roman land division system.

This study aims to investigate and document the previously unrecorded remains of Roman centuriation in Turopoljski Lug forest, situated between the Roman towns of Siscia and Andautonia. The main research questions were, based on the observed centuriated land:

Determine the administrative affiliation of the centuriated land—whether it belonged to the colony of Siscia or the municipium of Andautonia.

Explore the relationship between centuriation, road networks, and burial mounds, such as the Noric-Pannonian tumuli, in the broader context of Roman colonization and land use in inland Pannonia.

Through addressing this research questions, this research could have a significant impact not only on broader landscape studies but also on our contemporary understanding of local landscape changes. This research could contribute to the growing body of studies on forested landscapes, which remain a key focus of LIDAR-based investigations and serve as further evidence of its effectiveness. Also, it points to new direction of landscape research, such as:

How have the dynamics of forestation and deforestation influenced the preservation of centuriation?

How was a once-effective drainage system forgotten, allowing swamps to reclaim the land?

Why are these forests traditionally referred to as prehistoric, despite their origins being from much later periods?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The area of focus in our research is the forested region between the Roman towns of Siscia and Anadutonia, both as part of the Roman province of Pannonia (Figure 1). Siscia became a Roman town under Augustus (from 35 BC) and probably gained colony status around 71 AD [23]. Andautonia became a municipium [24] during Flavian urbanization of the Roman province Pannonia [25,26]. Siscia was of vital importance, as it was the starting point of the Roman colonization of the Carpathian Basin and formation of the province Pannonia. It was also strategic point in the emperor Traian’s Dacian wars.

Figure 1. Position of the Turopoljski Lug forest on the map of Europe (base: QGIS Open street map).

Figure 1. Position of the Turopoljski Lug forest on the map of Europe (base: QGIS Open street map).

2.2. Materials and Methods

To investigate the ancient landscape between the Roman towns of Siscia and Andautonia, we adopted a multidisciplinary and methodologically rigorous approach. Our methodology combined remote sensing, cartographic analysis, and archaeological review to ensure comprehensive coverage of available data.

2.3. LIDAR Data and Visualization

The core of our spatial analysis was based on a high-resolution LIDAR dataset provided by the Croatian Geodetic Administration through the project Multisensory Aerial Survey of the Republic of Croatia for Natural Disaster Risk Assessment and Reduction. The dataset offers a point density of at least 4 points per square meter [27], sufficient for the detection of subtle archaeological features such as tumuli and ancient land divisions.

We used already processed and filtered data from the Digital Terrain Model (DTM), produced by the Croatian Geodetic Administration. This model proved highly suitable for both detailed observation and accurate spatial interpretation. For visualization and analysis, we used the standard and very effective tool for LIDAR data visualizations for archaeological purposes, the Relief Visualization Toolbox [28,29,30], which provides a range of advanced visualization techniques specifically optimized for archaeological landscape analysis.

An initial vertical exaggeration factor of 8 was applied to emphasize subtle topographic features. Following the identification phase, exaggeration was reduced to a factor of 1 to present a more realistic representation of the landscape.

Among the available visualization techniques, the following were selected as most effective:

• Hillshade model: 35° zenith angle, 315° azimuth.
• Multi-directional hillshade model: 16 directions, 20° sun elevation.
• Simple local relief model (SLRM): 20 m search radius.
• Slope

These methods were particularly successful in highlighting key archaeological and geomorphological features.

2.4. Study Area and Scale

The primary research area encompassed approximately 850 square kilometers between Siscia (modern Sisak) and Andautonia (modern Šćitarjevo). Within this zone, the Turopoljski Lug forest, which now covers over 4500 hectares [31], was a major focus of investigation due to its potential to preserve ancient landscape features under dense vegetation.

2.5. Archaeological and Historical Data Integration

The study began with the examination of previously documented Noric-Pannonian tumuli, identified in earlier archaeological publications [5,6,7] through LIDAR data analysis. During this phase, a pattern of regular linear features was also observed, prompting a systematic expansion of the study area. This expansion led to the identification of additional tumuli and previously undocumented remains of a Roman centuriation grid.

To contextualize these findings, we incorporated historical cartographic sources, particularly those hosted by maps.arcanum.com (Europe in the XVIII century, Croatia (1865–1869), Second military survey of the Habsburg Empire, Europe in the XIX century, Third military survey of the Habsburg Empire—Cadastral maps (XIX century) [32] and Geoportal.dgu.hr (digital ortophoto from 1968) [33]. These maps span a period of four centuries and were critical in:

• Tracing the historical extent of forest cover.
• Identifying shifts in landscape use and toponymy.
• Understanding long-term changes in the visibility and preservation of archaeological features.

2.6. Analytical Integrated Approach

For our analysis we combined several sources:

• Remote sensing and visualization of topographic features for archaeological interpretation.
• Comparative cartographic analysis to evaluate landscape transformation over time.
• Cross-referencing archaeological literature to validate the identification of tumuli and centuriation elements.

2.7. Field Surveys

Following the observations, we conducted a field survey in the autumn of 2024, in the areas with both known and new tumuli.

This integrative, multi-scalar approach enabled a detailed reconstruction of the Roman-era spatial organization and offered insights into the transformation of the region from antiquity to the present.

3. Results

In this analysis, we detected and/or confirmed 3 important elements of Roman landscape on LIDAR data visualizations (Figure 2): (1) tumuli, (2) centuriation division, and (3) roads. Some of the tumuli were previously documented and excavated [5,6,7], and some of the Roman roads were documented since the 18th century [6], while the remains of centuriation were completely unknown until this research.

3.1. Tumuli

In Turopoljski Lug, 10 areas with a concentration of tumuli were discovered almost 50 years ago, with a total of 104 tumuli. The concentration of tumuli ranges from 1 to 23 within a single group [5,6,7]. Six of those tumuli were excavated and all confirmed to the Roman period, from the late 1st until the beginning of the 3rd century AD [5]. The tumuli represent a specific group known by the name of Norricum-Pannonian tumuli. This kind of burial custom is specific for Roman provinces of Noricum (southern part) and Pannonia (Northern part), where the mound is formed by earth, without supporting walls. They can be dated from the 1st until the 3rd century AD (e.g., [34]).

The areas with preserved tumuli were confirmed on LIDAR data and field survey, while some new areas with tumuli were detected (Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5).

Z. Gregl [6] noted the regular concertation of tumuli group VI in parallel lines and mentioned the possibility that they were aligned alongside the road, but that could not be confirmed (Figure 4a). The space between groups he observed was a centuriation line (Figure 4b). On LIDAR data, we recognized 389 tumuli in 32 zones (

Table 1. Number of tumuli in Turopoljski Lug.

Reference	Number of Tumuli	Number of Areas with Tumuli
Koščević, Makjanić [5]	49	4
Gregl [6]	104	10
LIDAR data 2024 [27]	389	32

and Figure 5).

3.2. Centuriation

The main division measured squares of 710 × 710 m. The remains of 11 well-preserved main squares were detected on LIDAR data visualizations in Turopoljski Lug. In some cases, an internal division into 8 × 8 parts was preserved, which did not follow traditional internal measurements.

The division identified on LIDAR visualization presented a typical Roman centuriated landscape (Figure 6). Limites were formed by drains or ditches, frequently flanked by trees and henges [35] (Figure 1 in that text). That is why the edges of ditches were usually elevated. Both ditches and hedges were visible on LIDAR data visualisations (Figure 3). The inner grid was also made by ditches and hedges, as documented elsewhere (e.g., [36]) and observed in this analysis (Figure 3 and Figure 4, and Figures 11–13).

During the 18th century, extensive forest clearing was undertaken and the land was transformed into arable fields, which is documented by written records, plans, and topographical names. The biggest one happened in the second half of the 18th century, when organized deforestation took place and the new land was equally divided among Turopolje nobility [37]. It lasted from 1776 to 1779, and as a reminder of this significant event, a memorial gate was erected—Vrata od krča (Deforestation Gate). The gate was destroyed and restored several times and is now a protected monument [9]. The clearance areas are often recognizable by the toponym KRČ (Croatian word for clearing forest/bushes to transform forest into arable fields and also toponyms Krčevina or Kerč/ć are present on historical map) [32,33]. Historical maps prove that the areas where centuriation lines are not visible at the moment are areas where deliberate deforestation and clearance took place during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries (Figure 2 and Figure 7). Some are near modern villages like Buševac, Lekenik on east Krči, Poljana on east Krčevina, west from Suša Kerči, and Kerčinci (all on Habsburg Empire—Cadastral maps (XIX century)) (Figure 7a) [32]. On the First Military Survey (1783–1784) Provinz Kroatien map, west from Veleševac is the toponym Kerchevina (Figure 7b) [32]. On the modern map Krči Geoportal, the same toponym is in the vicinity of the village Ogulinec [33].

In 1876, the government approved the sale of Kozjak forest [38]. It is later mentioned as a meadow, as well as large cleared areas of Krči and Vratovo [39], which are toponyms in the areas where no remains of centuriation have been found. We can conclude that the lack of centuriation remains is the result of subsequent forest clearance activities and preparation for agricultural activities. Here, it is not documented, as elsewhere, that the limites and ditches were used in later periods, probably because for a period of time the entire area was abandoned.

The azimuth of centuriation is 15 degrees. It is worth mentioning that the streets of present day Sisak in its northern part (Zeleni brijeg), outside of the Roman town perimeter, have the same orientation, while the street grid in the part of the town that was Roman Siscia has a different orientation. We can conclude that this block of land division was finalized at the northern entrance to Roman Siscia. The existing Zagrebačka cesta entering Sisak from the west Siscia follows that azimuth, as well as the Zeleni brijeg part of the town (Figure 8). On LIDAR visualization, there are some visible features that could present the remains of limites since they are not part of present streets and blocks.

3.2.1. Main Grid

The main grid was formed as regular rectangles with the dimensions 710 × 710 m (most typical centuriation grid). It was formed by digging channels 4 to 10 m wide for the main grid. On both sides of the channels, there are remains of elevations, so we can conclude that the henges were formed on the edges of the channels, thus forming the most typical centuriation features for the lowlands, especially marshy areas, which Turpoljski Lug most certainly is. A total of 425 horizontal of vertical grid lines (both main and internal) were documented in this research (Figure 9 and Figure 10).

3.2.2. Internal Division

The internal division was visible within several main divisions. The width of the channel was 3–5 m. It was not so well preserved in all areas, but in the central area, with the most finds of tumuli and main grids, there were also numerous remains of the internal division. The internal division was formed similar to the main one, with channels and henges, but much more narrow (Figure 11, Figure 12 and Figure 13).

3.3. Roads

Matija Petar Katančić in the late 18th century described the route of the Roman road from Andautonia to Siscia [40]. In the modern village of Buševec, the road split into two branches—one toward the west, and the other toward the southeast, in the direction of Siscia [41]. The road was still visible in the 18th century and was called the “Roman path.” Field surveys confirmed those conclusions [38]. The branch from Buševec was visible on LIDAR visualizations, almost in continuity, until the village of Sela (Figure 14), from where it was covered by the modern road until Siscia (Sisak), but the archaeological excavations preceding the reconstruction of the aforementioned road confirmed the presence of the Roman road [42].

This main Roman road route on the western side is the best preserved part of the land division, but there are also remains (though much less numerous) to the west from this road.

Auxiliary roads were not made of pebbles and cobbles but as plain dirt roads. In the vicinity, remains of such road were excavated [43].

Traces of possible small auxiliary Roman roads are visible in the area. The remains of Roman auxiliary roads were discovered during the rescue excavation in Donji Vukojevac, on the route of the motorway Zagre–Sisak, as well as remains of Roman rural settlements [43]. The remains of such types of roads were also found during the excavations for the same motorway more toward the north [44]. Elevated narrow features visible on LIDAR visualizations were therefore interpreted also as the remains of auxiliary roads.

The remains of the road entering Siscia at the northern gate were discovered along the present day Zagrebačka cesta, confirming the direction suggested from the 18th century. This road has the same orientation as centuriation (Figure 8). This road crosses Odra River, close to the confluence with Kupa River. In 1968, the remains of a Roman bridge were discovered nearby [45] and interpreted as a bridge connecting the road leading to Andautonia [45]. The remains of the road in the N-E direction were found in the area of Zeleni brijeg in two places [45], also following the 15-degree azimuth, in the Roman period as today.

To sum up the results of our analysis, in the Turopoljski Lug region, there are preserved remains of the Roman centuriated landscape, consisting of three key elements: tumuli, centuriation limites, and roads. A total of 389 tumuli distributed across 32 zones were identified, significantly expanding previous findings and confirming burial practices typical of the Norricum-Pannonian group from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD. The remains of Roman centuriation, previously undocumented in this area, were identified as a well-preserved grid system of 710 × 710 m squares, with internal divisions, marked by ditches and henges—a landscape feature consistent with lowland Roman planning. These grids align with the azimuth of 15°, which also corresponds with the modern urban layout in northern parts of Sisak (ancient Siscia), in immediate continuation of the northern city walls, suggesting continuity of spatial organization from antiquity to the present. Roman roads, documented since the 18th century, were confirmed both through LIDAR data and fieldwork, including the main route from Andautonia to Siscia as well as auxiliary roads. The absence of centuriation traces in certain areas corresponds to historical forest clearance from the 18th century onward, further contextualizing the impact of post-Roman land use on the preservation of ancient features.

4. Discussion

The analysis of LIDAR datasets and historical data provides concrete evidence for the interpretation of Roman land division, the remains of centuriation. The areas where centuriation is not preserved mostly coincide with those that were deforested during historical periods, as seen on historical images. LIDAR offers significant advantages in detecting and analyzing Roman centuriation, including non-invasive surveying, high-resolution data, and the ability to access hard-to-reach areas. Its limitations—such as difficulties with subtle features, environmental factors, and historical changes—must be considered. Complementing LIDAR with other archaeological techniques and historical records will help to overcome these limitations and provide a more comprehensive understanding of ancient land divisions. At the moment, the potential of applying LIDAR data analysis in archaeology greatly exceeds its potential limitations. It will take time until we reach those limitations.

This is especially clear in the research of forested and marshy areas where archaeological remains are difficult to observe using traditional methods, but, on the other hand, are better preserved because of environmental factors. With LIDAR, we can now reach areas that were out of modern infrastructure impact as well as archaeological methodology.

The land is, even though marshy, suitable for agriculture, which is confirmed through use in historical and recent periods.

Area now covered in forest, known as Turopoljski Lug, between Siscia and Andautonia are considered as Siscia territory [45]. Some authors [46] (https://www.amz.hr/media/et3hcdx4/polo%C5%BEaj-i-pretpostavljena-veli%C4%8Dina-teritorija-andautonijskog-municipija.jpg) (accessed on 25 April 2025) consider Turopoljski Lug as a part of the Andautonia ager. Kadi suggests, based on analysis of historical maps and modern infrastructure, that the azimuth of Andautonia’s centuriation was 22.5 degrees [46]. One of the roads from Šćitarjevo toward the south-east, confirmed by geophysical research, also has an azimuth of 22.5 degrees, suggesting the possibility of centuriation with the same azimuth (https://www.amz.hr/media/threp3d2/gradsko-i-prigradsko-podru%C4%8Dje-andautonije-s-prilaznim-cestama-s-engl.jpg) (accessed on 25 April 2025). The street grid of Roman Andautonia in its first phase is aligned with the main cardo, oriented toward the north [47]. In the second phase, the azimuth of the streets and buildings is 60 degrees [47]. It is interesting to note that the most northern street of Andautonia discovered by the geophysical research has an azimuth of 15 degrees [47] (Figure 8), but that could be in connection with the local topography or some other factors.

If we accept the northern raster of the present day Zeleni Brijeg area of Sisak and Zagrebačka street as the remains of orientation from the Roman period, we could suggest that the Siscia ager’s starting point was at the northern city walls of Siscia. Present day Zagrebačka street ends at the roundabout, and the following road in the direction toward the east (Ferde Hefelea street) changes orientation. This roundabout is around 300 m from the northern gate to Siscia. This northern gate was confirmed by archaeological excavations [48]. If we continue to follow the direction of Zagrebačka street, it ends precisely at the location of the northern gate [48]. The existence of the Roman road was confirmed in 2013 during the archaeological rescue excavation preceding the reconstruction of Zagrebačka street (39). This road today crosses the bridge across Odra River. Along the road, there were finds of graves in various places [42]. Zagrebačka street is the continuation of the modern road, which partly follows the route of the Roman road from Andautonia to Siscia, which was recognized in the early Modern Period [40] and confirmed in the 19th and 20th centuries [4,41] (Figure 15).

The azimuth of our centuriation does not follow either Andautonia’s [46] or Siscia’s azimuths [48]. The azimuth of the street grid of the municipium of Siscia is 5 degrees.

The orientation of a town and its ager does not have to be (or usually is not) the same [49]. Both cities and the land are planned according to specific characteristics, such as the demands of city structure, local topography, relationships with surrounding areas, and astronomical aspects [49]. Around some towns are even several different orientations of land. It is common practice that the orientation of the city does not match the orientation of the ager [49]. Also, the orientation of centuriation of two different towns is usually different. One of the rare opposite examples where they are the same is Parentium and Pola on the Istrian peninsula [13].

The suggested area of the Andautonia ager stretches up to village of Lekenik, in the area where LIDAR data confirmed the presence of centuriation with a 15-degree azimuth [43]. This research focused on the area south of Sava River and confirmed that the azimuth in this area was different (15 degrees, as mentioned here). Considering all of these data, we can suggest that the border between the Siscia and Andautonia agers is somewhere to the north of the suggested line. Since there are no undisputable traces detected farther than the 15-degree centuriation north of the village of Ribnica, it is too early to hypothesize whether the ager of Andautonia started only north of the city’s perimeter. Kadi places the eastern edge of the Andautonia ager at the village of Orli [46], but the western edge lies along the 15-degree azimuth. In our opinion, the Siscia ager should be placed at least 6 km to the northwest, based on current data (Figure 15). The eastern edge of the Siscia ager is yet to be determined since the traces of centuriation reach at least the village of Osekovo, which is a distance of 18 km from Siscia.

The practice of detecting centuriation through analysis of modern infrastructure is efficient and in use (e.g., [50,51,52,53,54]). Therefore, we accept Kadi’s suggestion of a 22.5 azimuth for Andautonia’s centuriation, especially since this is partly confirmed by geophysical research and archaeological excavation [46,47]. The focus on future research should be to find the border zone between the two agers.

This research could also have implications for some traditional general knowledge about the area, for example, the famous cattle bred bearing the name of Turopolje (tur), which are traditionally regarded as the descendants of aurochs. The fact that this area was cultivated land during the Roman period calls for a re-evaluation of this knowledge, since these data clearly show that the area was not covered in forest in all periods.

Turopolje is often mentioned as a very swampy, densely forested area until melioration in the 19th century, while the elevated Roman roads were the only passable areas [55]. It is now clear that during the Roman period the area was agricultural land, and numerous ditches forming main and inner divisions were probably part of a complex water regulation system because of the topographical characteristics of the area. The first mention of Turopolje Lug as a forest dates back to 1217 [38].

In this case, the centuriation system, with all its advantages as an efficient drainage system, was not later in use. Floods were frequent and the area is “famous” for it. There are numerous documented cases where the Roman centuriation system was later in use and constantly maintained, especially in the marshy environment [53,56], but not in this case. Current forest division visible on aerial and satellite photos does not follow Roman land division.

After the Roman period, the land division was abandoned. The excavated tumuli are dated from the late 1st century until the early 3rd century [5]. Most of the tumuli respect centuriation limites. Only some of them are in the inner part. This could mean that these parts were used specifically for burial areas or that the land could have been gradually abandoned and its function replaced. The Turopolje Lug after the Roman period became a densely forested space and, traditionally, these forests are called “prehistoric forests.” This kind of isolation reflects the fact that the forests were regarded as a possible refuge for late remaining aurochs between the Roman period and Middle Ages. Archaeogenetical analysis in the future should conclude whether there were aurochs in historical periods in the region. Abandoned forested areas, which were only cleared up for agriculture in the Early modern period could reflect the special relationships that later inhabitants had with these visible burials in the environment—an area of the dead. The Slavic toponims Trebarjevo and Veleševec (from Veles, in Slavic mythology, gods of water and the underworld) could support that interpretation.

5. Conclusions

Based on the analysis of LIDAR data, it is evident that the centuriation discovered in Turopoljski Lug forest is linked to the land division of the Roman colony Siscia. Our preliminary findings suggest that the remains of centuriation, combined with the current street layout and orientation of Sisak, point to the land division of Siscia. The centuriation pattern detected in Turopoljski Lug forest is most likely part of the larger colonial land division structure of Siscia. The alignment of the visible remnants of centuriation, when considered alongside the modern street grid, strongly supports the idea that they belong to Siscia’s ancient land division. The position and alignment of the current centuriation remains observed in Sisak further confirm its association with the Roman colony of Siscia. Considering Siscia’s role as a Roman colony, its high-ranking status among provincial authorities helps to explain the sophisticated land division, such as the centuriation found in Turopoljski Lug. LIDAR data analysis is proven as a highly powerful tool for observation and analysis of Roman landscapes as well as better understanding the relationships between towns.

The use of LiDAR data analysis in archaeological research is not a novel concept. Its potential has been recognized for over two decades [57,58], yet its application still falls significantly short of its full capabilities. Based on our experience, two primary factors contribute to this underutilization: the cost of data acquisition and concerns regarding data resolution and detail. The former is increasingly mitigated in many European countries since 2024, fortunately including Croatia, through the availability of state-provided, open-access LiDAR datasets. However, the latter concern regarding the adequacy of resolution remains a prevalent hesitation among researchers.

Studies have shown that data availability is a crucial factor influencing the impact of LiDAR-based archaeological research in a given region [59]. While concerns about resolution are valid, our research demonstrates that even low- to medium-resolution LiDAR data can offer invaluable insights across large landscapes—often revealing features not detectable by other remote sensing methods or combinations thereof. For instance, although seasonal variation can influence the visibility of archaeological features, our findings suggest that the season in which LiDAR data were collected did not significantly hinder feature identification [59]. In fact, most research, including our own, was not conducted during winter months, yet the features remained clearly discernible.

Importantly, we were able to detect relatively subtle features such as small irrigation ditches using only medium-resolution data—an achievement that contradicts the conclusions of many earlier studies [59]. However, it is important to note that LiDAR alone cannot resolve all interpretative challenges. For example, it cannot confirm whether the remains of centuriation were entirely erased by forest clearance activities or whether they might still be preserved to some extent. Such questions require the integration of additional archaeological methods.

As with every technology, LiDAR is not without its limitations. Besides the already mentioned high cost, were data not obtained otherwise, environmental factors such as dense or specific vegetation or adverse weather conditions can impede data quality. Furthermore, LiDAR data can sometimes produce false positives or miss subtle archaeological features [60]. Also, the amount of data and complexity of integrating LiDAR data with traditional archaeological methods poses challenges in harmonizing diverse datasets for comprehensive analysis and require specific expertise [29,61]. Ground verification and the context of the observations are necessary to verify findings, especially at multi-temporal sites [62].

In our view, LiDAR data remain an underexploited resource in archaeological landscape analysis. Even preliminary observations can significantly reshape our understanding of past land use and settlement patterns, as we argue this research has demonstrated. For areas lacking visible archaeological traces, targeted, higher-resolution data collection efforts can be planned to supplement existing datasets for smaller scale areas, such as a recently published case study [63].