Sasak Cultural Resilience: A Case for Lombok (Indonesia) Earthquake in 2018

Abstract

The 2018 Lombok (Indonesia) earthquake caused widespread destruction, significantly affecting both infrastructure and the socio-cultural fabric of local communities. While rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts primarily focus on restoring physical assets, the social and cultural dimensions critical to fostering community resilience are often overlooked. This research explores the concept of Cultural Resilience in promoting post-disaster recovery, with a particular focus on the Sasak Tribe in Lombok. By examining how cultural values, practices, and social networks contribute to adaptive capacity, the study seeks to integrate cultural resilience into disaster recovery strategies. The research employs a mixed-method approach, involving the identification of key characteristics of cultural resilience, mapping the levels of resilience within the community, and analyzing the social networks of cultural actors involved in post-disaster recovery. Through this, a “Build-Back Better” scenario is developed, which aligns rehabilitation plans with local cultural values. The findings are expected to enhance culture-based resilience and offer policy implications for more holistic disaster recovery interventions that strengthen both physical and cultural aspects of community resilience.)

1. Introduction

The earthquake that struck Lombok (Indonesia) in 2018 had significant impacts, with widespread damage to infrastructure and settlements. The 2018 Lombok earthquake caused extensive damage to infrastructure and settlements, with over 67,000 houses damaged and more than 387,000 people displaced [1]. Although recovery efforts have primarily focused on the reconstruction of homes and infrastructure, the cultural aspects inherent to the local community are often overlooked. Further observations in the Sasak cultural villages in Lombok indicate that traditional architecture and construction techniques passed down through generations of the Sasak Tribe play a crucial role in creating buildings that are resilient to natural disasters [2]. The Sasak people are the indigenous ethnic group of Lombok, Indonesia, known for their rich cultural heritage, distinct language, and traditional practices. They primarily speak Sasak, an Austronesian language, and most follow Islam, with some practicing Wetu Telu, a unique syncretic belief blending Islam with local traditions. Their traditional houses, like the Lumbung granaries, showcase unique architecture, while their cultural expressions include Gendang Beleq (drumming), Peresean (stick fighting), and Wayang Sasak (shadow puppetry with Islamic influences). The importance of culture in maintaining solidarity is evident, especially in providing psychological support and emotional stability to the community in facing post-disaster trauma. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, a global concept agreed upon by the United Nations in its efforts to reduce disaster risks, aims to reduce the impacts of disasters, whether in terms of social losses, damage to critical infrastructure, or social and economic disruptions. Moreover, the framework emphasizes the need to involve communities and stakeholders in efforts to enhance community resilience [3].

In this study, local knowledge related to the environment within the Sasak Tribe becomes a key element in community-based sustainability and preparedness efforts rooted in cultural practices [2]. In this context, the framework can be used as a tool to strengthen community resilience by considering local cultural aspects [4]. By understanding and valuing traditional knowledge and cultural practices, communities can identify potential risks and develop appropriate adaptation strategies [5]. Through active participation of the community and local stakeholders, disaster risk reduction policies and programs can be formulated by taking into account cultural values and local wisdom [6]. The role of Sasak traditions in post-disaster resilience, while considering the challenges of implementing rehabilitation and reconstruction plans that may conflict with local cultural values, threatens the cultural heritage that is important to the Sasak Tribe. In Sasongko, p- revious research has examined the spatial formation structures based on the culture of the Sasak Tribe in Central Lombok, and from these studies, as well as historical disaster data, the researcher assumes that if a space is formed due to culture, then cultural interventions of the Sasak Tribe can also influence adaptive capacity in resilience against disaster risks in Lombok.

In a broader context, the importance of a recovery approach that considers local cultural heritage and empowers communities is a critical aspect of designing appropriate recovery strategies. The goal is not only to rebuild physical infrastructure, economic systems, and the ecological system but also to consider the social aspects and cultural identity of the community. The concept of “Build Back Better” is a core concept in post-disaster recovery worldwide, aiming to enhance the strength and resilience of systems, infrastructure, and communities’ external stress and shocks after disasters to become more resilient [7]. Meanwhile, the concept of “Cultural Resilience” refers to a community or group’s ability to survive, adapt, and recover from disasters without losing their identity, values, and cultural practices. In this context, efforts to preserve and reintegrate cultural aspects enable communities to face challenges and increase their capacity to adapt to disasters.

The objective of this research is to adopt the concept of “Cultural Resilience” for Build Back Better (BBB) in a comprehensive approach to post-disaster recovery that emphasizes not only restoring affected areas but also enhancing their resilience to future hazards. This concept integrates disaster risk reduction measures into the reconstruction of physical infrastructure and societal systems, aiming to reduce vulnerabilities and improve overall resilience [8,9]. This research aims to create a “Build Back Better” scenario that takes local culture into account when formulating policies, which represents the novelty of this research. It is hoped that this approach will strengthen the resilience and preparedness of cultural communities, academics, and governments in facing future disasters while maintaining and preserving the cultural values of the Sasak Tribe in adaptation and mitigation efforts.

2. Methodology

2.1. Explanatory Analysis

Explanatory analysis is a research approach that focuses on elucidating the underlying causes and relationships between variables within a given phenomenon. Unlike descriptive research, which aims to describe characteristics or functions in detail, explanatory analysis seeks to answer “why” and “how” questions, thereby providing a deeper understanding of the subject matter. This method is particularly valuable when existing information is insufficient to explain observed patterns or behaviors [10]. By using explanatory analysis, researchers can develop hypotheses that inform future studies and interventions. For example, in the social sciences, this approach might be used to explore the factors that contribute to a particular social problem, such as the relationship between socioeconomic status and educational attainment.

Explanatory research uses a variety of methods to uncover causal relationships, including experiments, surveys, case studies, and secondary data analysis. Experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect on dependent variables, thereby establishing cause-and-effect relationships [11]. Surveys use structured questionnaires or interviews to collect data from a sample population, allowing the analysis of correlations between variables. Case studies are in-depth investigations of specific cases, providing detailed insights into complex phenomena and facilitating the exploration of causal mechanisms. Secondary data analysis examines existing data sets to identify patterns and test hypotheses without the need for new data collection.

2.2. Graph Neural Networks (GNNs)

Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) provide a valuable tool for analyzing complex social relationships within resilience networks. In this study, GNNs help map the connections between community leaders, local government, and NGOs involved in the cultural resilience of Lombok Tengah. By leveraging GNNs’ message-passing mechanism, each community entity (node) can interact with neighboring entities, revealing patterns of collaboration and support essential for resilience-building [12].

This approach allows us to visualize how different actors such as cultural figures and local authorities coordinate efforts and share resources, highlighting the network’s central hubs and peripheral connections [13]. Through GNNs, we gain insights into the strengths and potential gaps within the community’s support structure, making it possible to suggest targeted interventions for enhancing resilience.

2.3. Categorical Distribution

The categorical distribution is a type of discrete probability distribution that describes the probability that a random variable takes one of several possible categories, each of which is assigned a probability [14]. This distribution is particularly useful for modeling categorical outcomes, where each possible outcome is distinct and has no inherent order.

This distribution is also fundamental to several data science applications, especially natural language processing and classification tasks. It generalizes the Bernoulli distribution, which handles binary outcomes, to cases with more than two outcomes, and serves as the basis for the multinomial distribution, which represents probabilities over multiple trials. By using categorical distributions, researchers and analysts can model and interpret scenarios with multiple possible, non-ordinal outcomes, making it particularly valuable in machine learning for tasks that involve assigning items to one of many classes [15].

The combination of explanatory analysis, Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), and categorical distribution was chosen to provide a comprehensive assessment of Sasak cultural resilience and its role in post-disaster recovery. Explanatory analysis was used to establish causal relationships between cultural practices and community resilience, ensuring a thorough understanding of the underlying factors that contribute to adaptive capacity. GNNs were implemented to visualize and analyze social networks, making it possible to identify key stakeholders, their interactions, and the flow of resources. This method provided critical insights into the effectiveness of collaborative recovery efforts. The categorical distribution method facilitated the classification of different cultural resilience factors, allowing for a structured analysis of qualitative and quantitative data.

However, these methods come with limitations. Explanatory analysis relies heavily on qualitative data, which may introduce subjectivity and researcher bias in interpreting results. GNNs, while effective for mapping relationships, require a substantial amount of structured data, which can be challenging to obtain in post-disaster contexts where data collection is fragmented. Additionally, the categorical distribution method assumes that variables are independent and discrete, which may not always align with the complexities of cultural resilience, where interdependencies exist between different factors.

The methodological approach was used to assess Sasak cultural resilience following the 2018 Lombok earthquake. It begins by establishing the core research focus examining the impact of earthquakes, Sasak cultural values, and the Build Back Better (BBB) framework. The methodology integrates multiple data collection techniques, including primary surveys, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions. These methods feed into explanatory analysis and social network analysis, which are further refined using Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) to map relationships within the community. Additionally, categorical distribution is applied to classify resilience factors. The final step synthesizes findings related to community and stakeholder involvement, culminating in a scenario that aligns Sasak cultural resilience with the BBB approach for post-disaster recovery.

3. Data and Study Area

3.1. Lombok Earthquake 2018

A 7.0 magnitude earthquake on 5 August 2018 at 18:46 aggravated the situation in Lombok, which had previously been shaken by the 6.4 SR disaster on 29 July 2018. The shock was also felt in the eastern part of the island of Java. Thousands of houses were destroyed and hundreds of people died.

The monthly average earthquake magnitudes in Lombok from 2018 to 2024, highlighting a period of heightened seismic activity in 2018–2019 with magnitudes peaking above 5.4, were followed by a decline and stabilization around 2020. From 2020 to 2023, magnitudes remained relatively stable, with minor fluctuations, before dropping sharply in 2024 to one of the lowest levels in the observed period.

The described pattern suggests an initial increase in seismic activity, a subsequent period of stability, and a recent decrease in earthquake intensity, possibly reflecting changes in the region’s seismic behavior over these years (Figure 1).

The distribution of earthquakes in Figure 2 describes magnitudes in Lombok for the year 2018. The x-axis represents the earthquake magnitudes, ranging from 4.5 to 7.0, while the y-axis shows the frequency of occurrences. The majority of earthquakes in 2018 had magnitudes around 4.5, with a frequency of over 16 occurrences, indicating that lower-magnitude earthquakes were more common. As the magnitude increases, the frequency decreases, with a few occurrences between 6.0 and 7.0, showing that higher-magnitude earthquakes were relatively rare in 2018. This distribution suggests that Lombok experienced frequent but generally moderate earthquakes that year, with only a few reaching higher magnitudes.

Earthquake locations around Lombok, Indonesia, from 2018 to 2024 are shown in Figure 2, indicating average earthquake of each year event. A significant concentration of earthquakes, especially in 2018, is visible in the northern and northeastern coastal and offshore areas, suggesting that this region experiences recurrent seismic activity. Marker sizes are scaled to represent earthquake magnitudes, with larger markers indicating stronger events. Figure 3 visualize highlights the temporal and spatial distribution of seismic activity in Lombok, illustrating both onshore and offshore impacts over the years.

According to the Lombok Local Disasters Agency (BPBD) to date, based on the field and rapid assessment from the Local Disaster Agency, a combined total of 287 people died, 14,033 were injured, 64,533 houses were damaged, and 387,067 were displaced in Mataram City, West Lombok Regency, North Lombok Regency, Central Lombok Regency, East Lombok Regency, West Lombok Regency, and Bali Province. These figures are based on field and rapid assessment and coordination with government, humanitarian and community organizations.

The impact varied geographically, with less damage in Pujut, Praya and Batu Kliang sub-districts. The quake resulted in 20 deaths, hundreds of injuries and more than 26,370 damaged houses, highlighting the scale of the disaster’s impact on local communities and infrastructure such as schools, roads, and bridges. The immediate aftermath saw not only material losses, but also a significant emotional and psychological toll on the affected communities, requiring a coordinated response for both relief and long-term recovery.

3.2. Sasak Cultural Resilience

The resilience of Sasak culture in Lombok, particularly in the aftermath of the 2018 earthquake, is a fascinating blend of traditional knowledge, architectural ingenuity, and strong community ties.

Figure 4 indicated that earthquakes frequently happened in 2018, 2019, 2021, and 2023, this data can be broken down into several key aspects, each contributing to how the Sasak people have historically adapted to their environment and how they continue to persevere in the face of disasters all this time.

3.2.1. Traditional Architecture and Building Materials

In the villages of Sade and Ende, the architecture reflects a careful consideration of the natural and cultural context. Figure 5 shows houses traditionally built using local, flexible materials like bamboo, alang-alang grass for roofs, and occasionally clay or stones [16].

These materials are chosen not just for availability but for their specific properties that enhance earthquake resilience:

• Bamboo: Lightweight and flexible, bamboo allows structures to absorb and dissipate seismic energy, reducing the likelihood of collapse. Bamboo’s natural flexibility means it can sway without breaking, making it an ideal material in earthquake-prone areas.
• Alang-alang roofs: These roofs are lightweight, which minimizes the load on the house’s structural frame, further reducing the risk of collapse during an earthquake. The structure of alang-alang also allows for natural ventilation, making homes cooler while maintaining structural stability.
• Low-rise design: Sasak houses are often one-story buildings, which are inherently more stable in earthquakes. The low height keeps the center of gravity close to the ground, reducing the impact of lateral (side-to-side) shaking.

3.2.2. Community Cohesion and Gotong Royong

“Gotong royong”, or community cooperation, is a core part of Sasak society and Indonesian culture in general. It involves the collective efforts of the community to work together for mutual benefit. Figure 5 shows the tradition of mutual aid goes beyond simple physical assistance; it fosters a sense of unity, shared responsibility, and resilience.

Figure 6 shows gotong royong culture after the earthquake, this spirit was immediately evident as neighbors helped each other clear debris, build temporary shelters, and provide food and other necessities.

The community’s response included organized actions such as the following:

• Setting up temporary shelters: Villagers worked together to build makeshift homes in safe areas, often using available materials. This was done with remarkable speed and efficiency, highlighting the community’s preparedness and their readiness to mobilize resources and manpower.
• Community kitchens and shared resources: They set up community kitchens to ensure everyone, especially those most vulnerable, had access to meals. This pooling of resources ensures that no one is left without support, especially during the critical early stages of disaster recovery.

3.2.3. Cultural Practices and Rituals

The Sasak integrate traditional rituals into their daily lives, which also contribute to their resilience. For example, before a new house is built, the community may perform certain rituals, such as burying coins for the foundation as shown in Figure 7, or making offerings to honor the spirits and seek protection from disasters. These practices strengthen the community’s sense of identity and reinforce cultural values of respect for nature and spiritual beliefs.

In times of disaster, these rituals can provide psychological comfort and help people cope with fear and loss. They create a sense of continuity and stability, reminding the Sasak that they have overcome challenges before and will continue to do so. The resilience of their culture and traditions becomes a source of strength, helping the community find meaning and hope in difficult times.

This research aims to assess the impact of the earthquake while integrating the cultural context of the Sasak people to create a resilient recovery strategy, guided by the principle of “Build Back Better”. It combines three primary data collection methods: field surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions, to gain on-the-ground insights into the extent of damage, community needs, and cultural dynamics affecting recovery. These methods provide qualitative and quantitative data that allow for a comprehensive understanding of both the physical effects of the earthquake and the social factors involved.

For analysis, the framework uses explanatory analysis, graph neural networks (GNNs), and categorical distribution to process the collected data. Explanatory analysis helps describe post-disaster conditions, while GNN maps stakeholder relationships and identifies the roles of local government and community members in recovery efforts. The categorical distribution allows for the classification of different recovery needs and cultural considerations. Ultimately, this approach aims to create a culturally sensitive “Build Back Better” scenario that aligns reconstruction efforts with local values to promote sustainable and resilient recovery in the affected community.

4. Results

4.1. Impact of the 2018 Lombok Earthquake

The 2018 earthquake in Lombok was devastating, measuring 6.2 on the Richter scale, and caused significant destruction in Lombok Tengah and surrounding areas. The survey details that the northern parts of Lombok Tengah, particularly in areas such as Batu Kliang and Batu Kliang Utara, shown in Figure 8, were among those hardest hit due to their proximity to the earthquake’s epicenter. In these areas, many homes were either severely damaged or completely destroyed, displacing hundreds of families. Public infrastructure was also severely affected, with schools, mosques, roads and bridges suffering major structural damage. This left affected communities without access to essential services and facilities, making daily life extremely challenging in the immediate aftermath. The destruction was not only physical, but also emotional, as communities had to cope with the loss of loved ones, injuries to many residents, and the fear of aftershocks.

The immediate impact on the people was equally overwhelming. According to the survey, approximately 20 individuals lost their lives, and hundreds were injured. Over 26,000 houses were reported damaged, and the sudden displacement forced many residents into makeshift shelters, often in fields, open grounds, or communal spaces. The psychological toll was immense as families lost their homes and livelihoods in a matter of minutes. The aftermath of the earthquake triggered a profound need for both short-term emergency aid and long-term rebuilding plans. The natural disaster highlighted vulnerabilities within the community’s infrastructure and underscored the importance of building resilient structures that could better withstand future earthquakes.

4.2. Community Involvement in Rebuilding

Community participation was a cornerstone of the Lombok recovery process. The practice of “gotong royong” mobilized residents to support each other in every phase of recovery, from clearing debris to rebuilding homes and community facilities. This tradition, deeply rooted in Sasak culture, allowed villagers to work as a cohesive unit, sharing labor, skills, and resources to rebuild their lives. Every weekend, local authorities organized mass “gotong royong” events that drew people of all ages and backgrounds. These gatherings not only helped accelerate the rebuilding process, but also created a space for emotional healing as neighbors shared their experiences and encouraged each other.

“Gotong Royong helps in the repair of houses from families, neighbours and the community, the local government also participates in helping and volunteers who want to come to help”

—Disasters Local Agency (BPBD) Lombok Tengah

In addition to physical rebuilding, this collaborative effort strengthened social networks and fostered resilience among community members. Knowing that they could rely on their neighbors for support created a psychological safety net that helped reduce the trauma and anxiety associated with disaster recovery. Local government officials also participated in these efforts, further strengthening the sense of unity and shared responsibility. By combining government support with local cooperation, the community developed a strong foundation for long-term resilience and was better prepared to face future adversity together.

4.3. Resilience of Traditional Sasak Villages

The traditional architecture of Sasak villages such as Sade and Ende played an important role in increasing resilience during the earthquake. These villages use local materials such as bamboo and alang-alang (a type of grass), which provide structural flexibility and strength. Bamboo, in particular, has natural shock-absorbing properties that allow buildings to withstand seismic activity. The lightweight and flexible nature of bamboo walls and alang-alang roofs prevent buildings from easily collapsing, as these materials can move with the forces of the earthquake rather than resisting them.

“Houses in Sade and Ende Traditional Villages are built using local materials, such as bamboo and reeds. The low and wide design of the houses can help reduce the impact of earthquakes”

—Culture Chief of Sade Village

In addition, the low-rise structure of Sasak homes reduces the risk of major collapse and injury, since the lower the height of the building, the less it is affected by ground shaking.

The layout of traditional Sasak villages also contributes to their resilience. Houses are built with ample space between them, reducing the risk of damage from neighboring structures in the event of an earthquake. Residents also have generational knowledge of building techniques suited to earthquake-prone regions, such as using woven bamboo patterns for walls, which provide both stability and flexibility.

These construction methods, combined with cultural practices that emphasize harmony with nature and preparedness for natural disasters, illustrate the deep adaptability embedded in Sasak culture. The resilience of these villages serves as a model for integrating traditional knowledge with modern approaches to disaster management.

4.4. Reconstruction Model for Earthquake Cultural Resilience

Lombok’s post-earthquake reconstruction incorporated elements of both cultural heritage and structural resilience, creating a model that prioritized community involvement and disaster-resilient design. This model utilized traditional Sasak building techniques along with new earthquake resistant designs such as RISA, RICO, and RISBA. The RISA model focuses on flexible structural designs, RICO emphasizes column strength, and RISBA integrates various building elements for overall earthquake resistance. These designs were adapted to meet the cultural preferences of the community while maintaining safety standards and providing residents with culturally relevant and structurally sound homes.

“The government carried out post-earthquake recovery in house repairs by organising coaching activities for community groups (pokmas) as supervision in the construction of houses for affected communities. there are Facilitators (cross-village: trained and trained, there are applicators)”

—Local Planning and Research Agency (BAPPERIDA) Lombok Tengah

The government facilitated reconstruction by organizing local “pokmas” (community groups) that allowed residents to oversee and participate in the construction process. This ensured that new construction met technical requirements while preserving the cultural aspects of Sasak architecture. Facilitators also helped communities select qualified contractors, balancing technical expertise with the preservation of cultural elements.

“The community becomes the supervisor in the construction of each house. With funds already available, the community will be involved through the Pokmas (Community Group) contract mechanism. This gives the community the opportunity to choose and oversee the building process, as well as ensure that the construction of the houses is carried out in accordance with the set standards”

—Local Infrastructure Agency (PUPR)—Lombok Tengah

This inclusive approach not only strengthened the physical infrastructure, but also empowered the community by giving them a sense of ownership in the reconstruction process. Through this culturally integrated model, Lombok has set an example for rebuilding disaster-prone regions in a way that respects cultural heritage while prioritizing resilience.

4.5. Cultural Resilience

Cultural resilience is deeply embedded in the traditional practices of the Sasak community, particularly in the way they build their homes and organize their communities [2]. Traditional building materials such as bamboo and alang-alang are chosen not only for their cultural significance, but also for their flexibility and ability to withstand seismic forces. Studies highlight the importance of traditional building practices in increasing resilience to natural disasters. For example, Hadi et al. argue that local knowledge and traditional building techniques can be highly effective in disaster risk reduction because they are adapted to the specific environmental risks of the area [17]. This is consistent with the architectural choices of the Sasak people, which reflect a deep understanding of their local environment and a cultural adaptation to earthquake-prone conditions. In addition, cultural practices such as “gotong royong” play an important role in promoting community resilience [18].

“Public facilities were repaired by the local, provincial and central government as well as other assets and assisted by the community in the spirit of gotong royong (mutual cooperation).”

—Disasters Local Agency (BPBD) Lombok Tengah

Research by Aldrich and Meyer suggests that social cohesion and collective action are crucial to community recovery after a disaster, as they provide a psychological and emotional support network [19,20]. In the Sasak community, “gotong royong” strengthens social solidarity, allowing the community to mobilize resources and labor quickly and efficiently after a disaster [20]. This collective effort builds resilience by ensuring that community members are not left behind and that recovery is inclusive and holistic.

4.6. Actor Involvement

The involvement of multiple actors in disaster recovery can significantly improve the effectiveness of response and rebuilding efforts [21]. The role of the local government, NGOs, and international aid agencies in Lombok’s recovery exemplifies this collaborative approach. According to Johnson et al. (2016), the success of post-disaster recovery efforts often depends on the coordination between different actors, as each can bring unique resources and expertise to the process [22,23].

“Infrastructure improvements were carried out for approximately 2 years”

—Local Infrastructure Agency (PUPR)—Lombok Tengah

In Lombok, the local government took on an organizational role, while NGOs provided critical resources, such as medical and psychological support, filling the gaps where governmental aid was limited.

In Figure 9, Berke emphasizes that involving local communities in the recovery process builds resilience and ensures that reconstruction is aligned with community needs and values [24]. In Lombok, the “gotong royong” tradition enabled community members to actively participate in rebuilding their own villages with the support of government and NGO resources. This inclusive approach strengthened the community’s sense of ownership and agency, which are essential for sustainable recovery and long-term resilience.

The analysis in

Table 1. Node description.

Node Number	Node Description
1	Community and Cultural Leaders
2	Single-Family Compounds
3	Traditional Villages
4	Local Government (BPBD)
5	Mixed Community Villages
6	External Support

and

Table 2. Node distributions.

Source Node	Target Node
1	2
1	3
1	4
1	5
1	6

, and Figure 10, shows the structure of cultural resilience efforts in Lombok Tengah, Indonesia. At the center of the network are community leaders, NGOs, cultural figures, and local governments who act as the main coordinating hub. Their central position indicates a crucial role in connecting and mediating between different stakeholders involved in resilience activities. These leaders and organizations provide guidance, facilitate communication, and ensure that resources are shared among different community groups, making them essential to the functioning of the network.

The network in Figure 11 connects a variety of community nodes to this central hub, each representing different groups. For example, single-family compounds and traditional villages are directly connected to the central node, suggesting a reliance on community leaders and NGOs for support in building resilience. Traditional villages, in particular, may work closely with cultural figures, emphasizing the importance of traditional knowledge and local practices in resilience efforts. Meanwhile, villages with mixed communities are also connected, suggesting the need for tailored resilience approaches that address diverse community needs and promote inclusivity.

“National Disasters Agency (BNPB) determines the funds, namely with severe damage levels of 50 million, medium 25 million, light 10 million. The mechanism of work is from Pokmas (community groups) of affected communities. Supervising the construction of houses, there are facilitators from the civilian army and police and PUPR who oversee”

—Local Disasters Agency (BPBD) Lombok Tengah

In addition to community groups, institutional actors are also part of this resilience network. The local government (BPBD) is directly connected to the central node, demonstrating the collaboration between local government and community-based organizations in supporting resilience. The presence of an External Support Node highlights the involvement of external agencies, such as international organizations or technical experts, who provide resources or expertise to strengthen local resilience initiatives. Overall, this centralized structure emphasizes the importance of community-based leadership and collaboration with institutional partners, fostering a well-rounded and inclusive approach to cultural resilience in Lombok Tengah.

With reference to the node in Figure 11, embeddings are learned by a graph convolutional network (GCN) for entities involved in cultural resilience in Lombok Tengah, highlighting the relationships and functional similarities among them. Nodes that appear closer together in the embedding space—such as traditional villages, single-family compounds, and mixed-community villages—suggest that these community types have similar roles or dependencies within the resilience network. These communities likely rely on common support structures or interact with the same key stakeholders, reflecting shared challenges and collaborative efforts.

Based on the analysis, community leaders and cultural figures and NGOs and aid agencies are also closely positioned, suggesting a collaborative role in providing guidance and resources to the community. In contrast, the Local Government (BPBD) node is more isolated, suggesting a unique, policy-driven role that operates somewhat independently of other local entities. In addition, the External Support node is located at a distance, reflecting its role as an external resource provider that supports resilience initiatives but has limited direct interaction with local groups. This spatial arrangement reveals a network structure in which community leaders, cultural figures, and NGOs form the backbone of resilience efforts, supported by formal and external entities with distinct roles.

5. Discussion

5.1. Integrating Local Knowledge into Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

The Sasak community in Lombok has historically relied on traditional building methods and social practices to mitigate the effects of disasters. This study shows that traditional Sasak houses made of bamboo, alang-alang (thatch), and clay have high seismic resilience due to their flexibility and ability to absorb shock waves during earthquakes. Similar findings have been documented in Nepal, where vernacular architecture with wooden frames and interlocking joints has proven effective in earthquake resistance [25]. Despite these advantages, formal disaster policies in Indonesia often favor standardized reconstruction models, such as the RISA and RISBA frameworks, which may not be compatible with local cultural preferences.

Social networks, particularly the practice of gotong royong (mutual cooperation), play an important role in post-disaster response and recovery in Lombok. Findings from this study show that community members mobilized themselves to clear debris, build temporary shelters, and provide mutual support following the 2018 earthquake, demonstrating a high level of self-reliance. Research on post-disaster recovery in the Philippines has similarly highlighted the importance of social capital in disaster resilience, where collective action facilitated rapid recovery efforts [19].

Despite the proven benefits of local knowledge systems, challenges remain in integrating them into formal DRR frameworks. One major barrier is the lack of systematic documentation of indigenous disaster resilience practices. The oral nature of Sasak traditional knowledge makes it difficult for policymakers to institutionalize these practices in government-led DRR programs. In addition, there are tensions between modern building codes and local construction techniques, as authorities often prioritize uniformity and structural compliance over cultural adaptability. Studies of indigenous DRR in the Andean regions of Peru have highlighted similar challenges, with traditional adobe structures being sidelined in favor of concrete buildings that may not be adapted to local environmental conditions [26]. Addressing these gaps will require active engagement between researchers, policy makers, and community leaders to develop culturally appropriate disaster risk management strategies.

To effectively integrate local knowledge into DRR, government agencies such as BNPB and BPBD Lombok need to work with research institutions and local communities. The establishment of community-led disaster preparedness programs that incorporate traditional building techniques and social resilience strategies is essential. In addition, policymakers should develop guidelines that allow for the coexistence of traditional and modern seismic design principles, similar to Japan’s adaptation of traditional wooden architecture in earthquake-prone areas [27].

5.2. Bridging Traditional and Modern Resilience Strategies

While Indonesia’s disaster management framework is aligned with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the incorporation of cultural resilience—defined as the ability of cultural systems to withstand and adapt to disasters—remains largely underutilized in formal recovery and reconstruction policies. Current disaster recovery mechanisms continue to prioritize physical infrastructure and economic reconstruction, often sidelining local cultural knowledge, heritage sites, and traditional social practices that are central to long-term community resilience [3].

This gap is clearly visible in the implementation of Indonesia’s Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Pascabencana (R3P) framework, which emphasizes the reconstruction of housing and critical infrastructure, but lacks systematic measures to integrate local community practices into the reconstruction model. For example, although the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology (Kemendikbud Ristek) has identified and mapped Sasak cultural heritage sites, it has not worked closely with BNPB (Indonesia’s National Disaster Management Agency) or BPBD Lombok to ensure that these sites are protected during post-disaster reconstruction.

Studies in other countries show that when cultural resilience is formally integrated into disaster management, recovery becomes more socially inclusive, psychologically restorative, and locally relevant. In Japan, following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the government supported the preservation of cultural sites such as traditional teahouses and shrines, recognizing their value in supporting community healing and identity. These initiatives also provided platforms for community gatherings, which helped to rebuild social networks and promote collective psychological recovery. Similarly, in the reconstruction of Sri Lanka after the 2004 tsunami, the lack of cultural sensitivity led to the disruption of communal spatial patterns and the marginalization of traditional social structures, resulting in reduced community cohesion and prolonged recovery.

Research by Berkes in 2007 [28] highlights that ignoring traditional systems in disaster planning often leads to a mismatch between externally imposed interventions and the lived realities of local populations. Furthermore, Gailard and Mercer in 2013. argue that hybrid models that combine local knowledge and scientific methods offer more sustainable and adaptive solutions in disaster-prone regions. These findings are particularly relevant for Sasak communities, whose gotong royong practices, traditional land-use patterns, and spiritual governance structures can significantly contribute to more cohesive and community-driven recovery processes if formally recognized. To move forward, national authorities need to develop cross-sectoral guidelines that incorporate cultural indicators into disaster risk reduction (DRR) frameworks. These indicators could include metrics such as the preservation of traditional housing types, the level of community participation in reconstruction, and the protection of sacred or ritual spaces.

By formalizing cultural resilience in disaster policy, Indonesia can align national recovery strategies with the principles outlined in the Sendai Framework Priority 4—“Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response and ‘build back better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction”—while advancing Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11 on inclusive, safe, and resilient cities [3].

5.3. Formalizing Cultural Resilience in National Disaster Policies

While Indonesia’s national disaster management strategy is in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030), the study finds that cultural resilience is still an overlooked aspect of official recovery plans. Current disaster management focuses primarily on infrastructure reconstruction and economic recovery, with limited emphasis on the protection and revitalization of cultural heritage. Similar gaps were identified in Sri Lanka’s post-tsunami recovery, where reconstruction efforts prioritized physical infrastructure over cultural assets, resulting in a loss of traditional knowledge and social cohesion [29].

Institutional analysis shows that national agencies such as the BNPB have yet to systematically integrate cultural resilience into their post-disaster planning. Although the Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Pasca Bencana (R3P) program aims to rebuild housing and infrastructure, it does not explicitly integrate local cultural practices into its framework. Similarly, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology (Kemendikbud Ristek) has documented Sasak heritage sites, but has not actively collaborated with disaster management agencies to ensure their protection in post-disaster recovery [16]. Research on disaster recovery in Japan suggests that integrating cultural resilience into government-led programs enhances both social stability and psychological recovery, as seen in the preservation of traditional teahouses following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake. A similar approach in Lombok could strengthen cultural resilience by ensuring that reconstruction efforts are aligned with local heritage and identity.

Integrating Sasak cultural practices from Figure 12 into disaster resilience strategies can significantly enhance long-term recovery. Traditional earthquake-resistant architecture, such as the use of bamboo, alang-alang thatched roofs, and clay-based housing, provides structural flexibility that reduces the risk of collapse during seismic events. These techniques, if formally recognized in disaster recovery policies, can serve as a model for sustainable rebuilding in disaster-prone areas.

By integrating the framework from Figure 13 with these practices to create formal DRR policies, Indonesia can create a disaster management framework that is both sustainable and culturally inclusive, ensuring that communities not only rebuild but also retain their cultural identity in the face of future challenges.

The study also highlights the importance of developing cultural resilience indicators within disaster risk assessments. Traditional risk models focus primarily on economic damage and infrastructure loss, neglecting intangible cultural aspects that contribute to long-term recovery.

Research in Taiwan has demonstrated the effectiveness of incorporating cultural resilience indicators, such as community participation in heritage conservation and traditional knowledge transmission, into DRR frameworks [31]. Applying a similar model in Indonesia would allow policymakers to track and measure the role of cultural resilience in disaster recovery. Key indicators could include the extent of gotong royong participation, the integration of traditional construction methods into reconstruction projects, and the preservation of cultural sites in affected areas (Figure 14).

5.4. Sasak Cultural for Build Back Better Scenario

The “Build Back Better” approach adopted in Lombok emphasizes the integration of modern safety standards with cultural values, in line with global principles of resilient reconstruction. The concept of “Building Back Better”, as outlined by Khasalamwa, emphasizes not only rebuilding infrastructure, but also strengthening it to withstand future disasters [29]. In Lombok, this approach was evident in the adoption of earthquake-resistant designs such as the RISA and RISBA models, which incorporate flexibility and reinforcement to better withstand seismic activity. These models allow the Sasak people to maintain their cultural architecture while improving structural resilience. Similarly, the involvement of community groups through Pokmas (Kelompok Masyarakat) in overseeing reconstruction reflects the principles, who argue that community involvement in reconstruction processes leads to culturally sensitive and resilient outcomes [32]. By allowing local residents to oversee reconstruction, Lombok’s recovery efforts ensured that new buildings met technical standards without disregarding cultural heritage. This approach supports the notion that building back better involves not only physical reconstruction, but also social and cultural revitalization, which contributes to a resilient community that is better prepared for future risks. Through the following research findings and discussion, this research makes programs for Sasak cultural scenarios for building back better in

Table 3. Sasak cultural for build back better scenario.

Program	Scenario	Strategy
Cultural-Based Reconstruction and Building Practices	Preserve Traditional Architectural Designs	Reinforce traditional bale tani (Sasak house) structures by integrating bamboo framework, alang-alang roofing, and woven walls, which are naturally flexible and seismic-resistant. Implement modern retrofitting techniques while maintaining authenticity.
	Ensure Community-Led Design Approaches	Establish a Pokmas (Kelompok Masyarakat) Housing Initiative, where villagers collectively rebuild homes using gotong royong and traditional craftsmanship. Encourage local artisans and youth apprenticeships to preserve cultural building knowledge.
Enhancing Social Networks through Cultural Practices	Strengthen Gotong Royong as a Recovery Mechanism	Institutionalize gotong royong disaster recovery groups in each village, responsible for debris clearing, temporary shelter construction, and resource-sharing. Create a village-based emergency rotating fund for disaster-affected families.
	Revitalize Sasak Rituals for Psychological Recovery	Conduct Bale Beleq (traditional music ceremonies) and Burying Coins Rituals for community healing and post-trauma social reintegration. Rituals provide emotional resilience and strengthen community ties.
Reviving and Integrating Traditional Knowledge in Risk Reduction	Develop a Sasak Early Warning System	Document and integrate traditional weather forecasting (e.g., observing animal behavior, wind patterns, and tree blooming cycles) with modern BMKG (Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysics Agency) forecasts. Train village elders as disaster knowledge bearers.
	Integrate Sasak Land-Use Wisdom in Zoning Plans	Protect sacred sites and traditional settlement layouts by incorporating Sasak Natah (open courtyard spaces) into resilience-based urban planning to maintain flood escape routes and reduce earthquake damage.
Empowering Cultural Leaders as Central Recovery Actors	Establish Cultural Leaders as Focal Points in Recovery	Appoint Tua-Tua Adat (Sasak elders) and religious leaders as key advisors in disaster governance, relief coordination, and cultural-sensitive policymaking. Conduct disaster mitigation awareness using traditional storytelling (turun temurun knowledge-sharing).
Promoting Cultural Livelihoods for Economic Resilience	Strengthen Traditional Handicrafts for Post-Disaster Economic Recovery	Establish earthquake-affected artisan support programs that revive traditional songket weaving and pottery industries as income sources post-disaster. Develop “Resilient Crafts Market” initiatives to boost local economies.
	Eco-Cultural Tourism for Sustainable Disaster Recovery	Develop “Sasak Resilience Heritage Trails” showcasing disaster-resistant Sasak architecture, eco-friendly village designs, and traditional recovery methods to attract responsible tourism. Ensure tourism infrastructure is earthquake-resistant.
Integrating Cultural Resilience into Policies and Long-Term Recovery Plans	Legally Recognizing Sasak Cultural Resilience in Disaster Policies	Advocate for Sasak cultural disaster resilience frameworks to be included in Indonesia’s Disaster Management Law. Develop policies that mandate cultural impact assessments in post-disaster urban planning.
	Monitoring and Evaluating Cultural Resilience in Recovery Metrics	Integrate cultural indicators into national disaster risk assessments, ensuring that cultural resilience is a core metric in long-term recovery policies.

.

The “Build Back Better” (BBB) strategy presented emphasizes using cultural practices and community-based approaches to enhance disaster resilience and recovery. One of the key pillars is Cultural-Based Reconstruction and Building Practices, which focuses on preserving traditional architectural designs that are naturally resilient to environmental hazards. For instance, structures built using local materials like bamboo, thatched grass, and clay, as seen in the traditional Sasak architecture, can withstand seismic forces while respecting cultural heritage. These materials are not only cost-effective and environmentally friendly but also strengthen community identity through architecture that reflects local traditions [33]. Additionally, involving community leaders in design processes ensures that public spaces and homes are reconstructed in ways that honor local customs, providing both structural integrity and cultural continuity [34,35].

Another essential component of the BBB approach is Enhancing Social Networks through Cultural Practices. The concept of gotong royong (mutual aid and communal work) plays a significant role in fostering social cohesion and collective recovery efforts. This cultural practice encourages community-led activities, such as resource-sharing and rebuilding, which support physical and emotional recovery after disasters [28]. Furthermore, organizing community events like traditional ceremonies and storytelling provides comfort, rebuilds social networks, and reinforces cultural identity. Such events offer a platform to share disaster preparedness knowledge, allowing communities to recover together while strengthening social bonds and psychological resilience [28].

Integrating the Build Back Better (BBB) approach with Sasak culture in disaster management enhances both the structural and social resilience of communities by aligning post-disaster recovery with deeply rooted local traditions. The Sasak people’s traditional architectural practices such as the use of bamboo, alang-alang roofing, and low-rise designs are inherently seismic-resistant, providing a foundation for culturally appropriate reconstruction that also meets modern safety standards. Moreover, cultural values like gotong royong (mutual cooperation) and ritual practices such as coin-burying ceremonies foster strong social cohesion and emotional recovery, essential components of long-term resilience. Embedding these cultural elements into formal disaster management policies through community-led design, cultural education, and inclusion of traditional leaders ensures that recovery is not only faster but also more inclusive and sustainable. This culturally integrated model aligns with the Sendai Framework’s call for inclusive, locally adapted disaster risk reduction strategies that strengthen community ownership and long-term adaptability [3].

The integration of the Build Back Better (BBB) approach with Sasak culture supports the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, which promotes the use of local knowledge and inclusive strategies in disaster recovery. The Sasak community’s traditional building methods, strong social values such as gotong royong, and cultural rituals help people recover both physically and emotionally after disasters. By incorporating these cultural practices into disaster management plans, communities become more involved in their own recovery and are better prepared for future risks. This approach aligns with the Sendai Framework’s Priority 4: “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction”.

The strategy also highlights the importance of reviving and integrating traditional knowledge in risk reduction. Indigenous knowledge, including weather forecasting, sustainable land use and agricultural techniques, provides valuable insights into disaster preparedness. Integrating these practices with scientific data helps communities better anticipate and respond to environmental hazards [36]. For long-term impact, cultural education programs can share this knowledge and empower younger generations to adapt traditional resilience practices and apply them in modern contexts. This blend of traditional and scientific approaches enriches disaster risk reduction efforts, preserving valuable cultural insights while making communities safer [37].

Finally, empowering cultural leaders as central recovery actors and promoting cultural livelihoods for economic resilience ensures that recovery is inclusive and economically sustainable. Cultural leaders serve as focal points, guiding recovery efforts and ensuring adherence to cultural practices, which promotes faster, coordinated recovery [38]. Recognizing the role of women, youth, and marginalized groups in these processes further mobilizes community resources and strengthens social cohesion [39]. Supporting culturally rooted livelihoods, such as traditional weaving and sustainable agriculture, not only maintains economic stability but also preserves cultural practices, allowing communities to thrive economically while remaining connected to their heritage. Cultural tourism, if managed sustainably, can provide additional income while showcasing cultural pride and knowledge [40]. This comprehensive BBB approach ultimately strengthens community resilience, enabling communities to sustainably recover and adapt in the face of future challenges.

The heat map in Figure 15 provides a visual representation of the relationship between different program categories and specific recovery scenarios within a Build Back Better framework. The x-axis indicates program categories, such as “Cultural-Based Reconstruction and Building Practices” and “Strengthening Social Networks through Cultural Practices”, while the y-axis lists specific scenarios within these programs, such as “Ensuring Community-Led Design Approaches”, “Preserving Traditional Architectural Designs”, and “Strengthening Gotong Royong as a Recovery Mechanism”. Each cell in the heat map shows how strongly each scenario aligns with its program category, presumably based on performance metrics, level of community engagement, or frequency of implementation.

Table 0. to 1.1, with darker shades representing lower values and lighter shades representing higher values. This scale may reflect the strength of each scenario’s integration within the program category, highlighting the relative effectiveness or emphasis of certain recovery approaches. For example, “Ensure Community-Led Design Approaches” within “Culturally-Based Rebuilding and Construction Practices” is represented by a lighter shade, indicating a stronger focus or effectiveness in this area. In contrast, “Strengthening Gotong Royong as a Recovery Mechanism” under “Strengthening Social Networks through Cultural Practices” shows a darker shade, suggesting a different level of emphasis or application [37].

The visual distinction in the heat map helps identify which recovery strategies are most relevant to specific program goals. For example, traditional architectural preservation and community-led design feature prominently in culture-based reconstruction efforts, indicating a strong alignment with cultural preservation and local leadership values. Meanwhile, the social support scenario of gotong royong, while significant, may be emphasized differently, possibly due to differences in community engagement or resource allocation [41]. This pattern reflects the importance of tailoring recovery strategies to both cultural values and practical needs, which are essential for resilient recovery [25].

This type of analysis is useful for policymakers and practitioners involved in post-disaster recovery planning. By visually assessing the strength of different recovery approaches, they can prioritize resources for scenarios with the greatest impact or explore ways to strengthen those with less alignment [42]. Integrating cultural resilience into recovery frameworks has been shown to enhance community cohesion and long-term sustainability, reinforcing the need for context-specific disaster management strategies [43].

6. Conclusions

The 2018 Lombok earthquake had a devastating impact on infrastructure and communities, but the cultural resilience of the Sasak people played a crucial role in recovery efforts. This study has shown that traditional Sasak architecture, particularly in villages such as Sade and Ende, contributed to disaster resilience through the use of bamboo, alang-alang grass roofs, and clay-based structures that naturally absorb seismic forces. These materials and construction techniques, passed down through generations, have proven effective in reducing structural failure during earthquakes. Beyond physical reconstruction, the cultural traditions of the Sasak community have helped to maintain social unity and psychological well-being, reinforcing the need to integrate cultural values into disaster recovery strategies.

An important factor in post-disaster resilience was the spirit of gotong royong (mutual cooperation), which was evident in community-led reconstruction efforts. The Sasak people mobilized collectively to clear debris, build temporary shelters, and support vulnerable groups. This cultural practice was further strengthened by government initiatives such as the Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi Pasca Bencana (R3P) program, which emphasized community participation in housing reconstruction. By involving tua-tua adat (traditional elders) and cultural leaders in decision-making, reconstruction efforts were aligned with local values, ensuring that new housing designs preserved Sasak identity while meeting modern safety standards. This participatory approach was crucial in promoting long-term community resilience and local empowerment.

The Build Back Better (BBB) framework, when adapted to the Sasak cultural context, has proven to be an effective model for integrating disaster risk reduction with cultural sustainability. Traditional rituals such as besejati (pre-construction offerings) continue to provide psychological comfort and strengthen community cohesion. In addition, the spatial layout of Sasak villages, which includes open spaces between houses to reduce the structural impact of earthquakes, serves as a natural disaster risk reduction measure. This study shows how modern engineering practices can be combined with indigenous knowledge to create more resilient and culturally appropriate reconstruction strategies.

Economic recovery has also played a critical role in building resilience. The revival of Sasak cultural livelihoods, including traditional weaving, pottery and cultural tourism, has helped restore economic stability to affected families. Government and Non-Government Organization programs have facilitated training and market access for Sasak artisans, ensuring that cultural heritage continues to support economic resilience. Sustainable tourism, particularly in heritage villages such as Sade, has provided opportunities for both economic revitalization and cultural preservation, demonstrating how disaster recovery and local economic development can be mutually reinforcing.

This study highlights the need to integrate cultural resilience into disaster recovery policies. The case of the Sasak people in Lombok illustrates that post-disaster recovery should not only focus on physical reconstruction, but also on the preservation of social and cultural structures. Future disaster risk reduction efforts must recognize the role of local wisdom, traditional building techniques, and community-led initiatives in promoting long-term resilience. By integrating cultural considerations into disaster preparedness and recovery programs, policymakers and practitioners can develop more sustainable, inclusive, and community-driven approaches to disaster management, not only in Lombok but in other disaster-prone regions around the world.