On the Thermal Resilience of Venetian Open Spaces
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background
2.1. Urban Form and Urban Resilience in Historical Cities
2.2. Urban Form in Venice Campi
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Climate Datasets and Microclimatic Simulations
3.2. Physiological Equivalent Temperature Index Microclimatic Studies
4. Results
4.1. Campo San Polo Results
4.1.1. Shading Performance
4.1.2. Thermal Stress Values
4.2. Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo Results
4.2.1. Shading Performance
4.2.2. Thermal Stress Values
5. Discussion
5.1. MRT–PET in 2020
5.2. MRT–PET in 2050
5.3. Thermal Resilience Potentialities
5.4. Limitation of the Study
6. Conclusions
- (i)
- Assessing today’s thermal stress suggests that compact urban fabric decreases PET values due to the extensive project of shadows;
- (ii)
- Assessing the thermal stresses in the projected 2050 climatic scenario shows how high density the factor resulting in mitigation is;
- (iii)
- Venetian Campi were thought for functional and social purposes; this research study offers the perspective that they, in addition, grant some effective outdoor mitigations to face future heat waves. Campi may be an entity helping future climate change issues.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- IPCC 2013 Climate Change: The Physical Science Basis. In Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013.
- Kayser-Bril, N. Europe is Getting Warmer, and It’s Not Looking Like it’s Going to Cool Down Anytime Soon. 2018. Available online: https://www.europeandatajournalism.eu/eng/News/Data-news/Europe-is-getting-warmer-and-it-s-not-looking-like-it-s-going-to-cool-down-anytime-soon (accessed on 20 August 2021).
- Hatvani-Kovacs, G.; Belusko, M.; Skinner, N.; Pockett, J.; Boland, J. Heat stress risk and Gertrud resilience in the urban environment. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2016, 26, 278–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santamouris, M. Recent progress on urban overheating and heat island research. Integrated assessment of the energy, environmental, vulnerability and health impact. Synergies with the global climate change. Energy Build. 2020, 207, 109482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santamouris, M. Innovating to zero the building sector in Europe: Minimising the energy consumption, eradication of the energy poverty and mitigating the local climate change. Sol. Energy 2016, 128, 61–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Europe One Degree Warmer. Available online: https://www.onedegreewarmer.eu/city/Venezia (accessed on 20 August 2021).
- Carbognin, L.; Teatini, P.; Tomasin, A.; Tosi, L. Global change and relative sea level rise at Venice: What impact in term of flooding. Clim. Dyn. 2010, 35, 1039–1047. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braga, F.; Scarpa, G.M.; Brando, V.E.; Manfè, G.; Zaggia, L. COVID-19 lockdown measures reveal human impact on water transparency in the Venice Lagoon. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020, 736, 139612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peron, F.; De Maria, M.; Spinazzè, F.; Mazzali, U. An analysis of the urban heat island of Venice mainland. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2015, 19, 300–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naboni, E.; Havinga, L.C. Regenerative Design in Digital Practice. A Handbook for the Built Environment; EURAC: Bolzano, Italy, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Adolphe, L. A Simplified Model of Urban Morphology: Application to an Analysis of the Environmental Performance of Cities. Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des. 2001, 28, 183–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharifi, A.; Yamagata, Y. Principles and criteria for assessing urban energy resilience: A literature review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 60, 1654–1677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Natanian, J.; Aleksandrowicz, O.; Auer, T. A parametric approach to optimizing urban form, energy balance and environmental quality: The case of Mediterranean districts. Appl. Energy 2019, 254, 113637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nik, V.M.; Perera, A.T.D.; Chen, D. Towards climate resilient urban energy systems: A review. Natl. Sci. Rev. 2021, 8, nwaa134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdollahzadeh, N.; Biloria, N. Outdoor thermal comfort: Analyzing the impact of urban configurations on the thermal performance of street canyons in the humid subtropical climate of Sydney. Front. Arch. Res. 2021, 10, 394–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ratti, C.; Baker, N.; Steemers, K. Energy consumption and urban texture. Energy Build. 2005, 37, 762–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, V.; Steemers, K.; Montavon, M.; Compagnon, R. Urban Form, Density and Solar Potential. In Proceedings of the PLEA2006—23rd Conference Passiv, Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 September 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, J.; Heng, C.K.; Malone-Lee, L.C.; Hii, D.J.C.; Janssen, P.; Leung, K.S.; Tan, B.K. Evaluating environmental implications of density: A comparative case study on the relationship between density, urban block typology and sky exposure. Autom. Constr. 2012, 22, 90–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salvati, A.; Coch, H.; Morganti, M. Effects of urban compactness on the building energy performance in Mediterranean climate. Energy Procedia 2017, 122, 499–504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- EU Project “Climate for Culture”, Damage Risk Assessment, Economic Impact and Mitigation Strategies for Sustainable Preservation of Cultural Heritage in Times of Climate Change. Available online: https://www.climateforculture.eu/index.php?inhalt=home (accessed on 6 October 2021).
- Matzarakis, A.; Amelung, B. Physiological Equivalent Temperature as Indicator for Impacts of Climate Change on Thermal Comfort of Humans. In Seasonal Forecasts, Climatic Change and Human Health; Springer: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2008; pp. 161–172. [Google Scholar]
- Alberti, M.; Marzluff, J.M. Ecological resilience in urban ecosystems: Linking urban patterns to human and ecological functions. Urban Ecosyst. 2004, 7, 241–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doulos, L.; Santamouris, M.; Livada, I. Passive cooling of outdoor urban spaces. The role of materials. Sol. Energy 2004, 77, 231–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, R.D.; Vanos, J.; Kenny, N.; Lenzholzer, S. Designing urban parks that ameliorate the effects of climate change. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 138, 118–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ratti, C.; Raydan, D.; Steemers, K. Building form and environmental performance: Archetypes, analysis and an arid climate. Energy Build. 2003, 35, 49–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noro, M.; Lazzarin, R. Urban heat island in Padua, Italy: Simulation analysis and mitigation strategies. Urban Clim. 2015, 14, 187–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naboni, E.; Natanian, J.; Brizzi, G.; Florio, P.; Chokhachian, A.; Galanos, T.; Rastogi, P. A digital workflow to quantify regenerative urban design in the context of a changing climate. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2019, 113, 109255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santamouris, M. On the energy impact of urban heat island and global warming on buildings. Energy Build. 2014, 82, 100–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, G.Z.; DeKay, M. Sun, Wind and Light. Architectural Design Strategies, 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Givoni, B. Urban. Design in Different Climates; World Meteorological Organization: WMO/TD n.346. WTO: Geneva, Switzerland, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- European Urban Charter II. In Manifesto for a New Urbanity; Council of Europe Publishing: Strasbourg, France, 2008.
- Li, Y.; Schubert, S.; Kropp, J.P.; Rybski, D. On the influence of density and morphology on the Urban Heat Island intensity. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Scarpa, T. Venezia è un Pesce. Una Guida; Feltrinelli: Milano, Italy, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Muratori, S. Studi per un’Operante Storia Urbana di Venezi; Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato: Roma, Italy, 1960; pp. 29–35. [Google Scholar]
- Crowhurst Lennard, S.H. The Venetian Campo. In Ideal setting for Social Life and Community; Corte del Fontego: Venezia, Italy, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Berghauser Pont, M.; Haupt, P. Space—Matrix: Space, Density and Urban Form; Architecture Institute: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Erbani, F. Non è Triste Venezia. Pietre, Acque, Persone. Reportage Narrativo da una Città che deve Ricominciare; Manni Editore: San Cesario di Lecce, Italy, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Bruse, M. The Influences of Local Environmental Design on Microclimate—Development of a Prognostic Numerical Model ENVI-Met for the Simulation of Wind, Temperature, and Humidity Distribution in Urban Structures. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Bruse, M.; Fleer, H. Simulating surface–plant–air interactions inside urban environments with a three dimensional numerical model. Environ. Model. Softw. 1998, 13, 373–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salata, F.; Golasi, I.; Vollaro, R.D.L.; Vollaro, A.D.L. Urban microclimate and outdoor thermal comfort. A proper procedure to fit ENVI-met simulation outputs to experimental data. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2016, 26, 318–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taleghani, M.; Kleerekoper, L.; Tenpierik, M.; van den Dobbelsteen, A. Outdoor thermal comfort within five different urban forms in the Netherlands. Build. Environ. 2015, 83, 65–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Crank, P.J.; Sailor, D.J.; Ban-Weiss, G.; Taleghani, M. Evaluating the ENVI-met microscale model for suitability in analysis of targeted urban heat mitigation strategies. Urban Clim. 2018, 26, 188–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ambrosini, D.; Galli, G.; Mancini, B.; Nardi, I.; Sfarra, S. Evaluating mitigation effects of urban heat islands in a historical small center with the ENVI-Met climate model. Sustainability 2014, 6, 7013–7029. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ibrahim, Y.I.; Kershaw, T.; Shepherd, P. A methodology For Modelling Microclimate: A Ladybug-tools and ENVI-met Verification Study. In Proceedings of the 35th PLEA Conference Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design, a Coruña, Spain, 1–3 September 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Perini, K.; Chokhachian, A.; Dong, S.; Auer, T. Modeling and simulating urban outdoor comfort: Coupling ENVI-Met and TRNSYS by grasshopper. Energy Build. 2017, 152, 373–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Available online: https://energyplus-weather.s3.amazonaws.com/europe_wmo_region_6/ITA/ITA_Venezia-Tessera.161050_IGDG/ITA_Venezia-Tessera.161050_IGDG.zip (accessed on 20 August 2021).
- Remund, J.; Müller, S.C.; Schilter, C.; Rihm, B. The Use of Meteonorm Weather Generator for Climate Change Studies. In Proceedings of the 10th EMS Annual Meeting, 10th European Conference on Applications of Meteorology (ECAM) Abstracts, Zürich, Switzerland, 13–17 September 2010. [Google Scholar]
- IPCC. Special Report Summary for Policymakers. In Emissions Scenarios; IPCC: Geneva, Switzerland, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Available online: https://shadowmap.org (accessed on 15 July 2021).
- Atlante della Laguna. Available online: http://www.atlantedellalaguna.it/?q=maps#tema-1-titolo (accessed on 20 August 2021).
- Capedri, S.; Grandi, R.; Venturelli, G. Trachytes Used for Paving Roman Roads in the Po Plain: Characterization by Petrographic and Chemical Parameters and Provenance of Flagstones. J. Archaeol. Sci. 2003, 30, 491–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Höppe, P. The physiological equivalent temperature–a universal index for the biometeorological assessment of the thermal environment. Int. J. Biometeorol. 1999, 43, 71–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galal, O.M.; Sailor, D.J.; Mahmoud, H. The impact of urban form on outdoor thermal comfort in hot arid environments during daylight hours, case study: New Aswan. Build. Environ. 2020, 184, 107222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsoka, S.; Tsikaloudaki, K.; Theodosiou, T. Analyzing the ENVI-met microclimate model’s performance and assessing cool materials and urban vegetation applications—A review. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2018, 43, 55–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Building Materials | Plaster | Masonry—Heavyweight | Brick-Burned |
---|---|---|---|
Absorption (-) | 0.50 | 0.65 | 0.60 |
Transmission (-) | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Reflection (-) | 0.50 | 0.35 | 0.40 |
Emissivity (-) | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.90 |
Specific Heat (J/kg⋅K) | 850 | 840 | 650 |
Thermal Conductivity (W/m⋅K) | 0.60 | 0.90 | 0.44 |
Density (kg/m3) | 1500 | 1850 | 1500 |
Urban Finishing Materials | Trachite Euganea | Canal Water |
---|---|---|
Roughness (-) | 0.01 | 0.01 |
Albedo (-) | 0.5 | 0.04 |
Emissivity (-) | 0.9 | 0.96 |
Building Profiles | Brick-Burned | Plaster | Masonry Heavyweight | Plaster |
---|---|---|---|---|
Exposed Brick Wall | 10 cm | 0 | 25 cm | 2 cm |
Plastered Brick Wall | 0 | 2 cm | 40 cm | 2 cm |
Urban Profiles | Trachite Euganea | Sand | Sandy Loam | |
Pavement | 6 cm | 20 cm | 200 cm | |
Water | Loamy soil | Sand | ||
Canal | 100 cm | 50 cm | 50 cm |
Data | Campo San Polo | Campo SS. Giovanni e Paolo |
---|---|---|
Orientation | E-W | N-S |
Open paved area (m2) | 5728 | 3510 |
Average Buildings Height (m) | 0.50 | 0.35 |
Maximum Buildings Height (m) | 26.6 | 50.7 |
Mean Buildings Height (m) | 11.55 | 12.53 |
Canal orientation | parallel to the Campo | parallel to the Campo |
Canal influence | 2 canals-not facing the Campo | 1 canal-facing the Campo |
Green Mass | 4 trees | 1 tree |
Green Mass average diameter (m) | 16 | 10 |
Shaded open area (including the canal) % at h.10 am, h.1 pm, and h. 16 pm | 33%; 16%; 30% | 23%; 21%; 42% |
∆ MRT (2020–2050) at h.10 am, h.1 pm, and h. 4 pm | 5 °C (h.10 am); 6 °C (h.1 pm); 6.5 °C (h.4 pm) | 7 °C (h.10 am); 6 °C (h.1 pm); 5 °C (h.4 pm) |
∆ PET (2020–2050) at h.10; h.13; h.4 pm | 2.2 °C (h.10 am); 2.5 °C (h.1 pm); 2.6 °C (h. 4 pm) | 2 °C (h.10 am); 2.5 °C (h.1 pm); 2.6 °C (h.4 pm) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gherri, B.; Maiullari, D.; Finizza, C.; Maretto, M.; Naboni, E. On the Thermal Resilience of Venetian Open Spaces. Heritage 2021, 4, 4286-4303. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040236
Gherri B, Maiullari D, Finizza C, Maretto M, Naboni E. On the Thermal Resilience of Venetian Open Spaces. Heritage. 2021; 4(4):4286-4303. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040236
Chicago/Turabian StyleGherri, Barbara, Daniela Maiullari, Chiara Finizza, Marco Maretto, and Emanuele Naboni. 2021. "On the Thermal Resilience of Venetian Open Spaces" Heritage 4, no. 4: 4286-4303. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4040236