Chemical Compositional Signatures of Constituent Minerals of Iron Slags and Ores from the Khmer Monuments
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
3. Results
3.1. Descriptions of Materials
3.1.1. Iron Ores
3.1.2. Iron Slags
3.2. Chemical Compositions
3.2.1. Fayalite in the Iron Slags
3.2.2. Wüstite in Iron Slags
3.2.3. Magnetite in Iron Ores
3.3. Radiocarbon Dating
4. Discussion
4.1. Sources of Iron Ores
4.2. Dating for Charcoal Fragments from Iron Slags
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sampling Site | Latitude | Longitude | Slag | Iron Ore |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ben Sre, PKKS (A) | 13°25′05.5″ N | 104°44′43.6″ E | A10 | A8 |
Ben Sre, PKKS (B) | 13°25′08.8″ N | 104°44′48.9″ E | B12, 13 | B11 |
East Gate of 4th Enclosure, PKKS (C) | 13°24′38.3″ N | 104°45′11.2″ E | C11, 12, 13, 15, 16 | C14, 15, 16 |
South of causeway near East of 3rd Enclosure, PKKS (D) | 13°24′38.6″ N | 104°45′17.2″ E | D1, 4, 5, 7, 8 | D10, 11, 12 |
North of causeway near East of 3rd Enclosure, PKKS (E) | 13°24′42.7″ N | 104°45′16.0″ E | E3, 5, 6 | E1, 2, 3, 4, 5 |
Svay Damnak (F) | 13°19′34.0″ N | 104°55′08.9″ E | F1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 | F1, 2 |
Prasat Suor Prat, Angkor monument (G) | 13°26′47.6″ N | 103°51′38.0″ E | G1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 | - |
Bayon, Angkor monument (H) | 13°26′27.5″ N | 103°51′33.0″ E | H1, 2, 3, 4 | - |
Sre Tomnup, PKKS (I) | 13°24′19.8″ N | 104°45′31.1″ E | I3, 4, 5, 6 | I1, 2 |
Sre Tomnup, PKKS (J) | 13°24′20.8″ N | 104°45′38.9″ E | J2, 4, 5 | J1 |
Sre Tomnup, PKKS (K) | 13°24′20.0″ N | 104°45′39.1″ E | K2, 3, 4 | K1 |
Trapeang Ach Daek Thom, PKKS (L) | 13°24′08.5″ N | 104°45′52.4″ E | L3, 4, 6 | L1, 2 |
Trapeang Ach Daek Thom, PKKS (M) | 13°24′10.5″ N | 104°45′51.8″ E | M2, 3, 4 | M1 |
Trapeang Ach Daek Toch, PKKS (N) | 13°24′06.3″ N | 104°46′12.3″ E | N2, 4, 5 | N1 |
Trapeang Ach Daek Toch, PKKS (O) | 13°24′06.7″ N | 104°46′15.4″ E | O2, 3, 4 | O1 |
Plau Kuk Daek, PKKS (P) | 13°24′53.8″ N | 104°45′12.5″ E | P2, 3 | P1, 7, 8 |
Ben Sre, PKKS (Q) | 13°25′12.0″ N | 104°44′53.7″ E | Q2, 3, 4 | Q1 |
Ben Sre, PKKS (R) | 13°25′00.1″ N | 104°44′31.9″ E | R2, 3, 5 | R1 |
Sanlong Java (S) | 13°16′49.2″ N | 104°59′47.0″ E | S5, 6, 8 | S1, 2, 3, 4 |
Sanlong Tonle Bak (T) | 13°17′16.6–18.1″ N | 105°00′43.3–48.3″ E | T1, 2, 3, 4 | T1, 2, 4 |
Trapeang Sanlong, PKKS (U) | 13°24′24.8″ N | 104°45′44.9″ E | U1, 2, 3 | U4, 5, 6 |
Angkor Thom, Angkor monument (V) | - | - | V1 | - |
Iron mine 1, Phnom Daek | 13°19′13.7″ N | 105°00′35.2″ E | - | MINE1-2, 1-3, 1-7 |
Iron mine 2, Phnom Daek | 13°19′31.0″ N | 105°00′45.0″ E | - | MINE2-2, 2-4, 2-5 |
Group * | Site | SiO2 | Al2O3 | FeO | MnO | MgO | CaO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2-C | Site A | 29.95 ± 0.40 ** | 0.28 ± 0.08 ** | 60.27 ± 2.40 ** | 5.22 ± 0.79 ** | 3.51 ± 1.38 ** | 0.76 ± 0.34 ** |
2-E | Site B | 31.62 ± 0.69 | 0.27 ± 0.36 | 53.61 ± 2.64 | 5.65 ± 1.01 | 6.49 ± 3.43 | 2.37 ± 2.26 |
1 | Site C | 27.98 ± 1.80 | 0.37 ± 0.21 | 67.55 ± 5.67 | 2.76 ± 2.79 | 0.97 ± 1.87 | 0.45 ± 0.36 |
2-D | Site D | 29.86 ± 2.01 | 0.33 ± 0.19 | 57.88 ± 2.42 | 9.08 ± 1.51 | 0.40 ± 0.16 | 2.45 ± 1.68 |
2-D | Site E | 30.12 ± 0.33 | 0.29 ± 0.24 | 58.63 ± 0.85 | 8.74 ± 1.00 | 0.47 ± 0.22 | 1.75 ± 1.17 |
1 | Site F | 31.49 ± 1.66 | 0.42 ± 0.37 | 64.32 ± 2.22 | 2.17 ± 0.92 | 1.01 ± 0.48 | 0.59 ± 0.23 |
1 | Site G | 30.57 ± 0.96 | 0.17 ± 0.13 | 66.80 ± 1.45 | 0.75 ± 1.05 | 0.82 ± 0.47 | 0.90 ± 0.54 |
1 | Site H | 31.16 ± 0.49 | 0.14 ± 0.11 | 62.93 ± 2.40 | 2.11 ± 1.53 | 1.27 ± 0.38 | 2.39 ± 1.10 |
2-A | Site I | 30.18 ± 0.42 | 0.13 ± 0.12 | 57.33 ± 5.48 | 3.30 ± 0.65 | 0.90 ± 0.44 | 8.17 ± 5.73 |
2-B | Site J | 29.44 ± 3.77 | 0.25 ± 0.38 | 57.97 ± 8.57 | 3.60 ± 0.92 | 2.00 ± 1.32 | 3.56 ± 1.94 |
2-A | Site K | 32.41 ± 1.08 | 0.17 ± 0.11 | 53.91 ± 5.58 | 3.05 ± 0.48 | 1.50 ± 0.62 | 8.96 ± 5.71 |
2-B | Site L | 29.54 ± 0.77 | 0.29 ± 0.20 | 59.85 ± 5.65 | 4.45 ± 1.50 | 1.76 ± 0.33 | 4.11 ± 5.32 |
2-A | Site M | 30.98 ± 0.66 | 0.20 ± 0.30 | 49.97 ± 2.67 | 2.92 ± 0.43 | 1.76 ± 0.33 | 14.19 ± 2.20 |
2-A | Site N | 30.46 ± 0.68 | 0.20 ± 0.14 | 58.21 ± 6.44 | 2.44 ± 1.19 | 1.48 ± 0.97 | 7.22 ± 4.50 |
2-C | Site O | 30.23 ± 1.20 | 0.35 ± 0.26 | 59.88 ± 4.02 | 4.71 ± 1.13 | 4.52 ± 2.45 | 0.31 ± 0.12 |
2-D | Site P | 29.09 ± 0.47 | 0.45 ± 0.32 | 61.11 ± 1.13 | 7.11 ± 1.51 | 0.49 ± 0.26 | 1.76 ± 1.12 |
2-C | Site Q | 29.44 ± 0.52 | 0.62 ± 0.21 | 61.07 ± 1.31 | 5.02 ± 1.12 | 3.02 ± 1.02 | 0.84 ± 0.54 |
2-C | Site R | 30.74 ± 0.42 | 0.20 ± 0.11 | 59.67 ± 1.20 | 5.46 ± 0.48 | 3.33 ± 1.10 | 0.61 ± 0.41 |
1 | Site S | 29.96 ± 0.49 | 0.58 ± 0.74 | 66.24 ± 1.19 | 2.17 ± 0.88 | 0.33 ± 0.21 | 0.72 ± 0.54 |
1 | Site T | 29.15 ± 0.78 | 0.46 ± 0.59 | 66.97 ± 1.65 | 2.26 ± 0.96 | 0.62 ± 0.41 | 0.54 ± 0.35 |
1 | Site U | 28.27 ± 2.26 | 1.04 ± 1.88 | 64.67 ± 2.54 | 3.50 ± 0.43 | 2.16 ± 1.38 | 0.34 ± 0.32 |
1 | Site V | 30.21 ± 2.12 | 0.13 ± 0.12 | 66.58 ± 2.75 | 1.54 ± 0.35 | 0.91 ± 0.32 | 0.63 ± 0.37 |
Lab No. (PLD-) | Sample No. | Sampling Point | δ13C (‰) | 14C Age (yrBP ± 1σ) | Calibrated 14C Age (Probability) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1σ | 2σ | |||||
PLD-19382 | No. A-1 | Ben Sre, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −28.65 ± 0.14 | 390 ± 20 | 1451–1486 cal AD (68.2%) | 1445–1515 cal AD (82.8%) 1600–1618 cal AD (12.6%) |
PLD-19383 | No. A-2 | Ben Sre, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −28.57 ± 0.15 | 390 ± 20 | 1450–1485 cal AD (68.2%) | 1445–1513 cal AD (84.2%) 1601–1617 cal AD (11.2%) |
PLD-30928 | No. C-1 | near East Gate of 3rd Enclosure, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −24.01 ± 0.29 | 535 ± 20 | 1400–1425 cal AD (68.2%) | 1326–1344 cal AD (12.4%) 1394–1432 cal AD (83.0%) |
PLD-30929 | No. D-1 | South of causeway near East Gate of 3rd Enclosure, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −24.51 ± 0.35 | 440 ± 20 | 1436–1453 cal AD (68.2%) | 1426–1470 cal AD (95.4%) |
PLD-30930 | No. E-1 | North of causeway near East Gate of 3rd Enclosure, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −28.54 ± 0.29 | 745 ± 20 | 1263–1278 cal AD (68.2%) | 1248–1286 cal AD (95.4%) |
PLD-32588 | No. F-1-2 | Svay Damnak | −26.72 ± 0.31 | 965 ± 20 | 1025–1045 cal AD (30.2%) 1095–1120 cal AD (32.1%) 1141–1147 cal AD (5.9%) | 1020–1054 cal AD (35.6%) 1078–1154 cal AD (59.8%) |
PLD-32589 | No. F-4 | Svay Damnak | −24.30 ± 0.19 | 940 ± 15 | 1036–1050 cal AD (12.5%) 1083–1126 cal AD (41.3%) 1136–1151 cal AD (14.3%) | 1030–1059 cal AD (21.1%) 1064–1154 cal AD (74.3%) |
PLD-30931 | No. P-1 | Phlau Kuk Daek, Preah Khan of Kompong Svay | −27.36 ± 0.30 | 635 ± 20 | 1297–1315 cal AD (25.1%) 1356–1388 cal AD (43.1%) | 1289–1325 cal AD (38.1%) 1345–1394 cal AD (57.3%) |
PLD-32476 | No. S-1 | Sanlong Java | −27.20 ± 0.15 | 205 ± 20 | 1661–1671 cal AD (15.3%) 1778–1799 cal AD (34.3%) 1942–1954 cal AD (18.6%) | 1652–1681 cal AD (26.0%) 1738–1751 cal AD (3.4%) 1762–1802 cal AD (45.0%) 1937–1955 cal AD (21.0%) |
PLD-32477 | No. S-2 | Sanlong Java | −26.15 ± 0.18 | 140 ± 20 | 1680–1695 cal AD (11.3%) 1726–1739 cal AD (9.6%) 1743–1763 cal AD (11.8%) 1801–1813 cal AD (8.7%) 1837–1842 cal AD (2.7%) 1853–1860 cal AD (3.6%) 1860–1867 cal AD (3.8%) 1874–1875 cal AD (0.6%) 1918–1938 cal AD (16.1%) | 1670–1700 cal AD (15.2%) 1702–1707 cal AD (0.6%) 1719–1779 cal AD (29.5%) 1799–1819 cal AD (11.0%) 1823–1825 cal AD (0.3%) 1832–1881 cal AD (20.2%) 1914–1943 cal AD (18.2%) 1952–1953 cal AD (0.3%) 1954–1955 cal AD (0.1%) |
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Uchida, E.; Murasugi, M.; Kuroda, A.; Lu, Y. Chemical Compositional Signatures of Constituent Minerals of Iron Slags and Ores from the Khmer Monuments. Heritage 2019, 2, 1724-1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage2020105
Uchida E, Murasugi M, Kuroda A, Lu Y. Chemical Compositional Signatures of Constituent Minerals of Iron Slags and Ores from the Khmer Monuments. Heritage. 2019; 2(2):1724-1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage2020105
Chicago/Turabian StyleUchida, Etsuo, Motoki Murasugi, Ayaka Kuroda, and Yusu Lu. 2019. "Chemical Compositional Signatures of Constituent Minerals of Iron Slags and Ores from the Khmer Monuments" Heritage 2, no. 2: 1724-1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage2020105